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This study provides a cross-platform, longitudinal investigation of pictures depicting political candidates posted to Facebook and Instagram over a 15-month period during the 2020 US election (n = 4,977). After motivating an exploratory research design, we set out to expound: the extent of cross-platform image posting across Facebook and Instagram;...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... asked about the emotions perceptible from candidates' faces and whether they differ on Facebook and Instagram. Figure 3 shows the proportion of emotion classifications, with raw numbers reported in the Appendix (Table S2). Figure 3 shows that for all candidates, Happy is the dominant emotion perceived across platforms, followed by Calm. ...Context 2
... can be seen in the study's data repository, many Unclassified images depicted the candidate speaking or in motion, where coders (as well as the Rekognition API) seem to struggle in assigning an emotion label. Table 2 presents the results of our binomial logistic regressions, which examine the relationship between emotions and post performance on Facebook and Instagram (RQ3). 9 To facilitate interpretation, we only report emotion categories that showed a statistically significant relationship (p < .05) ...Context 3
... our models show how different emotion classifications relate to post overperformance relative to an emotional baseline of "Calm." Table 2 reveals four key results. First, the emotion classifications that have a statistically significant relationship with post performance are Angry, Happy, and Sad. ...Citations
... This divergence may be related to politicians' attempts to tailor their message, considering platforms' technical differences and users' characteristics. As Bossetta and Schmøkel (2023) have noted, degrees of convergence and divergence have relevant implications for studying political communication. A high degree of convergence means that the results from studies focusing on one social network would be highly generalizable. ...
... This suggests the need to adapt political messages to each specific outlet: in fact, the impact of the same message varies depending on the platforms' audience and social media logic. Analyzing the US 2020 elections, Bossetta and Schmøkel (2023) explored the role of emotions by comparing engagement with politicians' images on Facebook and Instagram. Their results show that the message content is the same on both platforms and that "angry" posts are less likely to raise much engagement on Instagram and Facebook. ...
... Finally, another recurring question concerns taxes, as it results from the bigrams "flat tax" (the proposal to apply a single rate) and "tax bills" ("cartell* esattorial*"). In conclusion, the topics are very similar across social networks, confirming some of the findings reported in the literature (Bossetta & Schmøkel, 2023). There are also similarities between Meloni and Salvini, which is unsurprising, given that both produce a narrative in line with that of radical right populist parties. ...
Research shows that social media favors personalized, intimate, and emotional political communication and underlines the elective affinity between social media and populist leaders. However, cross-platform research on political communication is still rare. Existing studies focus on three aspects: how party strategists or politicians assess the relative importance of different social media platforms based on their affordances, the parties’ and politicians’ different investments in the various platforms and audience engagement, and message-tailoring on specific social media platforms. In this paper, we aim to compare the political communication of two right-wing populist party leaders in Italy—Giorgia Meloni (FdI) and Matteo Salvini (Lega)—between 2021 and 2022 on three social media platforms: Twitter, Instagram, and Facebook. The analysis focuses on time, content, and similarity. The results of the cross-platform analysis confirm the evidence of a permanent campaign mode of the two leaders and point to four main results: a cross-platform similarity in communication, a difference in audience engagement, the relevance of depoliticized political communication, and a higher audience engagement when communication focuses on positive rather than aggressive content. These findings significantly impact our understanding of political communication in the digital age.
... Finally, besides our preregistered expectations regarding mu rhythm activity, we also explore the alpha rhythm in the occipital areas. Namely, the oscillatory activity of the mu rhythm that falls within the alpha-band range (8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13). Hence, several scholars have pointed out that it is important to distinguish mu and alpha signals, since the two can sometimes be conflated 20,66 . ...
... Epochs were extracted for each condition, resulting into early epochs of 800-1900 ms (period of 1100 ms) corresponding to the static video; and 1950-4000 ms for the dynamic epochs (period of 2050 ms), corresponding to the dynamic video. Data were extracted for the mu/alpha band (8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13) Hz frequency) at five central electrodes C3, C1, Cz, C2 and C4; and at three occipital electrodes O1, Oz and O2. Subsequently, Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) was used for all eight electrodes to calculate the power spectral density (PSD) in each trial for the static and dynamic epochs, separately. ...
The high levels of polarization raise concerns about individuals’ decreased ability to empathize and understand the representatives of political out-groups. As such, our political biases may lead us to misunderstand out-group politicians. In the current study, we examine the mu rhythm, a neural oscillation in the sensorimotor cortex related to the processing and understanding of other people’s actions, intentions and emotions. The mu rhythm is particularly responsive towards the emotional expressions of others and sensitive to social biases. Hence, we examine (1) whether the emotions displayed by politicians lead to more mu event-related-desynchronization (mu-ERD), (2) whether it matters which emotion (angry, happy, neutral) is displayed, and (3) whether neural responses differ when emotions are displayed by politicians we support (in-party politician) compared to politicians we do not support (out-party politician). To test this, we recorded electroencephalogram (EEG) responses during a preregistered Go/No Go mimicry experiment (N = 47, Obs = 1104), in which participants are presented with dynamic morphed emotional displays of Dutch politicians (in- and out-party) and non-politicians. We find that politicians emotional displays increase participants’ mu-ERD compared to static neutral displays. Most mu-ERD is found for out-party politicians, especially when angry. In addition, we explored alpha oscillations (related to visual attention), where we find the strongest alpha-ERD for the out-party happy condition. Overall our results suggest that our brain is specifically attuned to process the emotions of out-party politicians.
... Surprise's valence is ambiguous (Reisenzein et al., 2009), and its impact on engagement is understudied (Bil-Jaruzelska & Monzer, 2022; Vargo & Hopp, 2020). Peng (2021) found that candidates expressing mixed emotions on Instagram led to increased engagement, while Bossetta and Schmøkel (2023) observed happiness driving engagement on Instagram and calmness performing better on Facebook. Choi, Lee, & Ji (2021) found positive emotions eliciting reactions but less engagement via comments and shares, with sadness generating the highest engagement across news posts. ...
... Digital media fosters the speed and the reach of environmental advocacy, allowing movements to transcend traditional boundaries of influence [25]. This cross-platform approach enables activists to create a consistent message that resonates across diverse audiences, enhancing awareness and engagement [26]. Through interconnected horizontal networks, campaigns can leverage different formats of videos, articles, infographics, and real-time updates, making complex issues more accessible [27]. ...
This research aims to formulate policy recommendations for community empowerment in facing climate change through a case study of the Go Green campaign conducted by the Pandawara Group in alignment with SDG 13: Climate Action. This campaign focuses on raising public awareness about the importance of climate change adaptation efforts through concrete actions such as reforestation, waste management, and carbon footprint reduction. The method used in this research is a qualitative approach with case study analysis. Data were collected through interviews, observations, and documentation of campaign activities. The study results show that the Go Green campaign by the Pandawara Group successfully encouraged active community participation in various environmentally friendly programs. However, there are challenges to the program's sustainability, particularly related to long-term commitment and more robust policy support from the government. Therefore, this research provides several policy recommendations, including strengthening collaboration between the government, communities, non-governmental organisations, and the private sector and integrating climate change adaptation programs into regional development plans. Implementing these policies is expected to strengthen the community’s capacity to face the impacts of climate change.
... However, research on this topic is still in its infancy. Therefore, more research is needed that investigates (a) the use of affective language on other online platforms, such as Facebook, and across issues (Bossetta & Schmøkel, 2023;Waterloo, Baumgartner, Peter, & Valkenburg, 2017); (b) readers' perceptions of affective and emotional climate communication (Bossetta & Schmøkel, 2023); and (c) how internal emotions of individuals shape climate change blog posts and tweets. ...
... However, research on this topic is still in its infancy. Therefore, more research is needed that investigates (a) the use of affective language on other online platforms, such as Facebook, and across issues (Bossetta & Schmøkel, 2023;Waterloo, Baumgartner, Peter, & Valkenburg, 2017); (b) readers' perceptions of affective and emotional climate communication (Bossetta & Schmøkel, 2023); and (c) how internal emotions of individuals shape climate change blog posts and tweets. ...
In recent years, climate change discussions have shifted from the blogosphere to platform cultures like Twitter (now X). However, it remains unclear how this shift has influenced the emotional tone of these conversations. In this preregistered study, we explored differences in affective and emotional language usage between English-language climate change blogs and tweets. Using sentiment classifiers, we analyzed two datasets: 2,633 blog posts from 18 blogs and 167,000 climate-related tweets. Contrary to expectations, blogs scored higher than tweets across all categories of affective language (positive and negative emotions, including fear, anger, sadness, disgust, joy, and surprise). Joy and surprise were the most frequently identified emotions in both datasets. On Twitter, positive-emotional language predicted higher engagement (likes and shares) more effectively than negative language or specific emotions. However, we observed differences depending on the sentiment classifiers used (Empath, Syuzhet, and VADER). These findings contribute to discussions of how different platform cultures influence climate change communication and affect the overall quality of the debate.
... In some cases, social media has even replaced traditional campaign events and advertisements, to promote interaction between political actors and the electorate, promote societal discussion and interest as well as political participation (Halpern et al., 2017). However, research has found that candidates mainly use social media for one-way, promotion-like communication in campaigning (Kalsnes et al., 2017;Marquart, 2023;Nelimarkka et al., 2020), even though more emotion-arousing content could promote the audience's engagement with the content and the candidate (Bossetta & Schmøkel, 2023;Russman et al., 2024). ...
... Nevertheless, the analyzed candidates varied in how they communicated during their campaign, which may imply both their personal differences and their aim to appeal to different voter groups (c.f. Bossetta & Schmøkel, 2023). ...
... The overperforming score is a metric that assesses the engagement potential of a post, comparing it to the average total interactions of the last 100 posts from the same profile over different time frames, excluding the top and bottom 25% of posts. 14,15 Following, an independent researcher systematically reviewed the first 2063 posts to achieve a predefined sample of 500 posts, as described by previous studies. 9,14,16 Specifically, posts were excluded for not being related to the issue of dental caries (n = 128), for not being produced in English (n = 25), for inaccessible links (n = 29), and duplication (n = 1381) ( Figure 2). ...
Objective
This study aimed to identify predictive factors for engagement with dental caries-related posts on Instagram.
Methods
Using CrowdTangle, 10,000 English-language posts were retrieved based on total interactions. From these, 2063 posts were evaluated using predetermined inclusion criteria, and a final sample of 500 posts was selected. Two independent investigators classified the posts according to dichotomized criteria: author profile (regular or commercial users), sentiment (positive or neutral/negative), motivation (financial or nonfinancial), format (link or photo), aim of content (prevention or treatment), and facticity (information or misinformation). Predictive factors for total interaction and overperforming scores were determined using multiple logistic regression models.
Results
Misinformation accounted for 44% of posts. Most posts were shared by regular users (67.8%), used a photo format (61%), and expressed a positive sentiment (73.8%). Prevention-related posts were significantly related to financial motivation, while treatment-related posts were linked to time of publication, neutral/negative sentiment, and photo format. Older posts were positively associated with misinformation (odds ratio (OR) = 1.45). Positive sentiment (OR = 1.71) and regular user profiles (OR = 1.93) were associated with higher total interactions. In contrast, business profiles (OR = 2.39) and posts with neutral/negative sentiment (OR = 1.79) were associated with overperforming scores.
Conclusion
Despite a significant amount of misinformation, only sentiment and author profiles were predictive factors for total interaction and overperforming scores in Instagram posts about dental caries.
... The social network X has been selected for its impact as a tool for political communication, rather than as a predictor of electoral outcomes (McGregor et al., 2017). Similarly, the level of interaction facilitated by X is higher than that of Facebook, primarily due to the ability to open parallel avenues of debate (Bossetta and Schmøkel, 2022). Consequently, the social network X has been identified as the most appropriate platform for conducting this analysis. ...
Two regional elections were held in 2022, marking the start of a new electoral phase in Spain. The first election was held in February in Castilla y León, where the right-wing VOX party formed a coalition government with the right-wing Partido Popular for the first time. At the same time, the far-left party Podemos saw its parliamentary representation significantly reduced. Subsequently, in June, Andalusia held its elections, in which VOX increased its representation by two seats, marking the beginning of its rise at the national electoral level. Conversely, the extreme left, split between two parties, saw its representation decline, losing 10 seats. This study attempts to juxtapose the electoral strategies employed by the leaders of the different political parties, with a particular focus on the communication strategies of leaders and parties on X (formerly Twitter) throughout the campaign period. It is expected that discrepancies will emerge not only between political entities, but also between regions. To investigate this hypothesis, we conducted a content analysis of X accounts, selecting those associated with regional presidential candidates within each region. We distinguish between those considered ‘traditional’ political parties and those considered ‘new’, including in these two categories the main contending political parties in each region. Thanks to the analysis, the proposed objective is achieved, demonstrating the existing differences between the two types of political parties and how their leaders use the social platform X. The results show that all the elements considered in the study are present, although not uniformly across both regions analyzed. This suggests a progressive alignment between new and traditional parties, reflecting a convergence in their strategies for conducting electoral campaigns.
... The role of social media in shaping public opinion during the 2020 US presidential elections provides a critical example of the interaction between digital platforms and deliberative democracy. Social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube play an important role in the dissemination of political information, enabling candidates and citizens to engage in real-time debates (Bossetta & Schmøkel, 2023). However, the impact of these platforms on the quality of debate has been mixed, revealing both opportunities and challenges for democratic discourse in the digital age. ...
Research Article ABSTRACT History This study examines the intersection between deliberative democracy and digital technologies, focusing on how online platforms influence public discourse and democratic engagement. The main purpose is to explore how digital technologies enhance inclusivity, speed, and scalability in deliberative processes while simultaneously raising concerns about misinformation, polarization, and exclusion. Drawing from the theoretical framework of deliberative democracy, which emphasizes rational discourse and public reasoning, the paper investigates the benefits and challenges that arise when deliberation moves online. Through case s tudies such as Iceland's crowdsourced constitution, global climate change discussions, and the role of social media during the 2020 U.S. election, the paper highlights how digital platforms facilitate rapid, large-scale deliberation and how they contribute to political fragmentation and echo chambers. The study employs a qualitative research methodology, analyzing the impact of digital platforms on deliberative processes through literature reviews and case studies. The hypothesis is that while digital platforms offer significant potential for enhancing democratic deliberation by broadening participation, they also present new risks to the integrity of public discourse, particularly due to misinformation and the manipulation of algorithms. Ultimately, the pap er argues that deliberative democracy must adapt to the realities of the digital age by integrating online and offline deliberation, fostering digital literacy, and establishing regulatory frameworks for transparency and accountability. The findings offer theoretical contributions to understanding the relationship between digital technology and democracy while providing practical recommendations for enhancing the quality of digital public discourse. ÖZ Bu çalışma, çevrimiçi platformların kamusal söylemi ve demokratik katılımı nasıl etkilediğine odaklanarak müzakereci demokrasi ile dijital teknolojiler arasındaki kesişimi incelemektedir. Temel amaç, dijital teknolojilerin müzakereci süreçlerde kapsayıcılığı, hızı ve ölçeklenebilirliği nasıl artırdığını ve aynı zamanda yanlış bilgilendirme, kutuplaşma ve dışlama ile ilgili endişeleri nasıl artırdığını araştırmaktır. Rasyonel söylem ve kamusal akıl yürütmeyi vurgulayan müzakereci demokrasinin teorik çerçevesinden yola çıkan makale, müzakerenin çevrimiçi ortama taşınmasıyla ortaya çıkan fayda ve zorlukları araştırmaktadır. İzlanda'nın kitle kaynaklı anayasası, küresel iklim değişikliği tartışmaları ve 2020 ABD seçimleri sırasında sosyal medyanın rolü gibi örneklerle, makale dijital platformların hızlı, büyük ölçekli müzakereyi nasıl kolaylaştırdığını, ancak aynı zamanda siyasi parçalanmaya ve yankı odalarına nasıl katkıda bulunduğunu vurgulamaktadır. Çalışma, dijital platformların müzakere süreçleri üzerindeki etkisini literatür taramaları ve vaka çalışmaları yoluyla analiz eden nitel bir araştırma metodolojisi kullanmaktadır. Çalışmanın hipotezi, dijital platformların katılımı genişleterek demokratik müzakereyi geliştirmek için önemli bir potansiyel sunarken, aynı zamanda özellikle yanlış bilgilendirme ve algoritmaların manipülasyonu nedeniyle kamusal söylemin bütünlüğüne yönelik yeni riskler ortaya çıkardığıdır. Sonuç olarak bu makale, müzakereci demokrasinin çevrimiçi ve çevrimdışı müzakereyi entegre ederek, dijital okuryazarlığı teşvik ederek ve şeffaflık ve hesap verebilirlik için düzenleyici çerçeveler oluşturarak dijital çağın gerçeklerine uyum sağlaması gerektiğini savunmaktadır. Bulgular, dijital teknoloji ve demokrasi arasındaki ilişkiyi anlamaya yönelik teorik katkılar sunarken, aynı zamanda dijital kamusal söylemin kalitesini artırmaya yönelik pratik öneriler de sağlamaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Müzakereci demokrasi, dijital kamusal söylem, çevrimiçi platformlar, yanlış bilgilendirme, siyasi kutuplaşma. a
... We also use the overperforming score to evaluate the reach of posts relative to the last 100 posts on the same account. 29,30 Data was collected following the previously mentioned strategy, resulting in the automatic generation of a .csv file by CrowdTangle. ...
Objectives: This study characterized toothache-related Portuguese Facebook posts, identifying factors driving misinformation production and user engagement. Methods: Investigators qualitatively analyzed 500 posts published between August 2018 and August 2022, screening on language and theme. Posts were selected using CrowdTangle and assessed for motivation, author profile, content, sentiment, facticity, and format. The interaction metrics (total interactions/overperforming scores) were compared between groups of dichotomized characteristics, including time of publication. Data were evaluated by descriptive analysis, the Mann-Whitney U test, and the path analysis by generalized structural equation modeling. Results: 39.6% of posts (n = 198) contained misinformation, significantly linked to noncommercial posts with positive sentiment, links, and videos from regular users motivated by financial motivation. Additionally, user engagement was only positively associated with business/health authors' profiles and the time of publication. Conclusion: Toothache-related posts often contain misinformation, shared by regular users in links and video formats, tied to positive sentiments, and generally with financial motivation.
