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Muddy soil on the tread surface contributes to trail widening and multiple treading as hikers seek to circumvent the muddy areas
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Citations
... Trail degradation has a negative impact on valuable ecology, leading to the degradation and loss of vegetation [9][10][11]. It also worsens the aesthetic landscape and the quality of the recreational experience [12,13]. ...
... However, no studies have scientifically confirmed the effectiveness of these repair methods. The evaluation of management actions, such as repair work, is necessary for trail science [12]. Trail science has focused primarily on quantitative measurements of erosion, with little attention paid to the destination of the eroded sediment. ...
Many mountainous, protected areas, such as national parks worldwide, face trail erosion; stakeholders have made significant efforts to manage eroded trails. However, their effectiveness has not been evaluated. This study aimed to (1) create digital elevation models of an eroded trail using structure-from-motion and multi-view-stereo photogrammetry in Daisetsuzan National Park, northern Japan; (2) conduct a six-year monitoring of the trails repaired by volunteers to reveal trail surface changes; and (3) discuss the effectiveness of the repair works. Palm-fiber bags were used on the trail section to stop the movement of the eroded soil. The results of the three-dimensional analysis identified a certain effectiveness of the repair work during 2017–2022. However, the effectiveness lasted for only approximately three years and was not permanent. Therefore, regular maintenance is necessary to ensure trail sustainability. In addition, the soil erosion rate calculated using the maximum erosion depth has increased from 0.52 mm y−1 (1923–1990) to 44.4 mm y−1 (2013–2022), suggesting the need for frequent observations. Trail maintenance through a combination of monitoring and repair work is vital, and the role of hikers/trekkers is becoming increasingly important.
... Marion et al. (2016) provide a comprehensive review of these trampling-related impacts, which are summarized here. Even light recreational traffic can reduce ground vegetation height, cover, and biomass (Cole 1995a,b, Cole 2004, Leung & Marion 1996. Trampling disturbance can alter the appearance and composition of vegetation by reducing plant height and favoring trampling resistant species. ...
... Severe trampling impacts, such as erosion and muddiness, often cause additional avoidable impact to water resources or to vegetation and soils in the form of campsite expansion or trail widening and formation of parallel secondary trails. Campsite expansion and proliferation of informal (visitor-created) campsites and trails can substantially expand the cumulative spatial extent of disturbance (Leung & Marion 1996, Marion et al. 2018a). Trails and campsites can also alter natural patterns of water runoff (Sutherland et al. 2001), resulting in irreversible soil erosion and subsequent turbidity and deposition in streams and other water bodies (Fritz 1993, Leung & Marion 2000, Marion et al. 2018b). ...
The Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail (PCT) is a national scenic trail extending from the U.S.-Mexican border 2,650 miles to the U.S.-Canadian border through California, Oregon, and Washington. This recreation ecology research project was supported by the USFS, NPS, BLM, and the Pacific Crest Trail Association to investigate camping impacts and the development of strategies and practices for enhancing the sustainability of camping management throughout the PCT corridor. The report supports science-based carrying capacity and Visitor Use Management (VUM) planning, decision-making, and adaptive management actions to support greater overnight visitation while minimizing any associated degradation of resource and social conditions. Report findings document baseline campsite conditions assessed between 2017-21 in nine separate study areas that mostly receive moderate to high camping visitation. These data were collected to characterize the various types of camping impacts to vegetation and soils and their potential effects on water quality, wildlife, and the experiences of PCT visitors. Protected area managers generally seek to limit these impacts by constraining the aggregate areal extent of camping impact by minimizing both campsite sizes and numbers. This report therefore focused on identifying and describing Best Management Practices (BMPs) that aid managers in selecting and promoting the use of small sustainable campsites that will remain in good condition despite high use, while constraining the proliferation and use of non-sustainable campsites. A comprehensive “toolbox” of sustainable camping site management, educational, and regulatory strategies and practices are described in an extensive literature review section that includes legislative, agency, carrying capacity, and VUM guidance, along with recreation ecology research findings describing influential factors and relationships.
... The Mount Irau route runs along ridge tops, and the upper slopes have experienced the worst erosion. Trail impacts are influenced by various user-related and environmental factors, according to Leung and Marion (1996), where intense impacts are studied to be concentrated spatially in a particular recreation site (Vukomanovic et al., 2022). Environmental factors are shown in many studies to be more relevant than user-related factors in determining the levels and rates of trail incision and the accompanying soil erosion. ...
Terrain analysis and elevation profiling are widely utilized in geographical studies where spatial information system is one of the foremost tools in assessing characteristic patterns of hiking trails and plain areas suitable for a campsite. The main objective of this study is to classify the landforms of Batu Gangan Forest Reserve by conducting a morphometric analysis of the digital terrain model (DTM) with a 10 m resolution. The classification process is based on calculating the topographic position index (TPI). Using TPI, the landscape was classified into slope position and landform categories. The delivered TPI landform classes are spatially correlated with the elevation, slope, LS factor, and topographic wetness of the mountain. Site observation was carried out to identify water sources, viewpoints, and their significance as suitable campsites and potential trails. An alternative trail was proposed to reduce the visitor impacts towards the main trail. The result suggested that the plains landform only covered 3.26% or 2.03 km2 of the study area, where two potential campsites were identified. The method presented and research findings derived from the study are beneficial to support sustainable recreation resource planning, especially in a complex mountainous area. The study's findings and data will lead to proper forest use for recreational reasons consistent with conservation efforts.
... However, some early studies did seek to identify factors influencing the severity of trail degradation (e.g., Bayfield, 1973;Bratton et al., 1979), followed by multivariate modeling analyses to ascertain their relative influence (Marion, 1994). A comprehensive review of the literature by Leung and Marion (1996) described additional influential factors and documented relationships to different types of trail degradation. However, these early trail science findings were not distilled into sustainable BMP trail design and management guidance until 2004, in a book chapter titled "Environmentally Sustainable Trail Management" (Marion and Leung, 2004). ...
... Recent research reveals that a trail's alignment relative to the prevailing landform slope, from fall line to contour line, can be nearly as influential to soil loss as TG, though the management literature seldom emphasizes this relationship (Marion and Wimpey, 2017;Meadema et al., 2020). Named the trail slope alignment (TSA) by Leung and Marion (1996), trails aligned close to the fall line become more susceptible to soil loss as LGs increase because water in their incised treads Table 1 Principal findings from original field studies describing the relationships of influential environmental and managerial attributes on trail degradation. ...
Protected areas (PAs) provide many important recreational, social, and economic benefits that are largely dependent on their ability to sustain visitation. Trail networks are a critical tourism infrastructure element that directly accommodate high quality recreation activities and experiences while providing access to and protection of irreplaceable natural and cultural resources. Unfortunately, most trail networks consist of historic "legacy" trails that were not sustainably designed and whose intensive use cause unacceptable impacts to PA resources, experiences, and values. This paper provides an international state-of-knowledge review of trail science research within the field of recreation ecology to describe common trail impacts and factors that influence trail degradation that trail stewards can manipulate to enhance the sustainability of trail networks. Two emerging models that seek to rate trail topographic sustainability are presented to illustrate their potential utility to PA managers. Expanding and incorporating trail science research into the sustainable trail planning, design, and Best Management Practice literature are also discussed.
... Fewer studies have used census approaches and categorical indicators such as trail erosion categories or general condition classes, which consider combined attributes of vegetation loss and soil erosion (Bratton, Hickler, & Graves, 1979;Nepal, 2003). Even though results vary, research has identified several general use-related, environmental, and managerial factors influencing trail conditions (Hammitt et al., 2015;Leung & Marion, 1996). Use level has repeatedly been found to influence trail conditions (Farrell & Marion, 2001;Nepal, 2003;Nepal & Way, 2007;Tomczyk et al., 2017). ...
With growing urban populations in close proximity to natural environments, recreation resource managers in parks and protected areas (PPAs) are increasingly confronted with challenges such as high levels of visitation and severe resource impacts. Additionally, urban-proximate PPAs, particularly informal trails in these areas, have received little research attention relative to more remote PPAs and formal trails. The formation of informal trail networks in urban-proximate PPAs can lead to extensive resource impacts such as loss of vegetation cover and soil erosion. Use-related, environmental, and managerial factors have been found to influence trail conditions and degradation on formal trails. We use a well-established rapid assessment field protocol and GIS-derived calculations to analyze informal trail conditions, and the factors influencing those conditions in a high alpine urban-proximate PPA. We find informal trail networks are extensive and that informal trails are influenced by use-related, environmental, and managerial factors in a similar fashion as formal trails. Additionally, results from predictor effect plots allow us to derive valuable management implications focused on where to concentrate use and minimize environmental impacts. Our study concludes with implications to further advance research related to informal trails, such as the need for sound sampling designs and the potential of trail research as a basis for further analysis on environmental susceptibility.
... Identifying areas of congestion is also important for other areas of research including where environmental damage and trail erosion may be more likely to occur (Salesa & Cerdà, 2020). Degraded trails can threaten the quality of visitor experiences by making travel uncomfortable or difficult or by diverting their attention away from nature (Dragovich & Bajpai, 2012;Leung & Marion, 1996). There may also be dissatisfaction among users expecting more solitude on congested trail systems. ...
Unlabelled:
The global rise in nature-based recreation increases the need for research on visitor activity use and interaction especially for multi-use trail systems. Conflict often arises during negatively perceived physical encounters (i.e., direct observation) of different user groups. Our study addresses these encounters on a winter multi-use refuge in Fairbanks, Alaska. Our goal was to develop a method that generates spatially and temporally explicit estimates of trail occupancy and encounter probabilities among different user groups. We used trail cameras with optic alteration to protect individual identity. We monitored winter recreational activity from November 2019 to April 2020 (n = 133 days) and sorted users into three user groups: 1) motor-powered, 2) dog-powered, and 3) human-powered. We calculated the total number of occurrences and proportion of activity across all user groups at each camera location. We identified hotspots of activity overlap (e.g., near trail access points), and peak times (14:01-15:00), days (Saturdays and Sundays), and months (December, February, and March) that may have had higher potential for physical encounters and conflict. We used multiplication and addition probability rules to estimate two probabilities: 1) the probability of user groups occupying individual trail segments, and 2) the probability of encounter between different user groups. We scaled up these probability estimates both temporally (hourly and daily) and spatially (refuge quadrant and refuge-wide). Researchers can adapt our novel method to any recreational trail system to identify locations with potential for congestion and conflict. This method can help inform management that improves visitor experience and overall trail user satisfaction.
Management implications:
We provide managers of recreational trail systems with a quantitative, objective, and noninvasive method to monitor activity among trail user groups. This method can be altered both spatially and temporally to fit any recreational trail system's research questions. These questions may involve congestion, trail carrying capacity, or user group and wildlife encounters. Our method advances current knowledge of trail use dynamics by quantifying the extent of activity overlap between different user groups that may be prone to conflict. Managers can use this information to incorporate relevant management strategies to mitigate congestion and conflict for their own recreational trail system.
... Recreation Ecology is "the study of how people undertaking recreation activities interact with the environment". More specifically, it examines, assesses and monitors visitor impacts and considers their relationship to environmental conditions, vegetation resistance and resilience (Leung & Marion, 1996;Leung & Marion, 2000). The importance of recreation ecology indicates how successful managers are in balancing conservation and recreation. ...
Biodiversity will be a long-term asset that needs to be studied sustainably for human welfare. Genetic diversity is the main pillar of species and ecosystem diversity. Genetic conservation is an effort to manage and conserve species using a molecular approach to understanding various aspects of species biology. The existence of biodiversity has various benefits. From a social perspective, biodiversity can be utilized for agro-edu education, recreation, and research facilities. Preservation of genetic diversity is an effort to support the agro-eco edu-tourism program, which has many benefits, including pleasure from tourism activities and visitors' education about biodiversity. Changes in land use cause forest degradation, habitat loss or damage, resulting in loss of biodiversity. Mitigation of biodiversity management is needed to maintain the balance of ecosystems and environmental functions.
... Според Leung & Marion (1996) и Marion & Leung (2001) туристическите пътеки изпълняват няколко изключително важни функции в процеса на взаимодействие между природата и посетителите на защитените територии. На първо място те концентрират посетителския поток като по този начин предпазват останалата територия от негативното въздействие на утъпкването. ...
... Подобен род изследвания целят да предоставят информация как да се предпазят пътеките от деградация, защото екологичните последици от нея могат да бъдат значителни и необратими. Известно е, че съществуват ефективни управленски мерки, които могат да направят пътеките по-устойчиви и да се минимизират негативните въздействия (Leung & Marion, 1996Marion et al., 2016). ...
... Особено уязвими на увреждане се считат преовлажнените почви, особено такива в близост до потоци или водни обекти. Счита се също така, че почви с повишено съдържание на скален субстрат са по-малко податливи на ерозия, предизвикана от утъпкване (Leung and Marion, 1996). ...
This study investigates the resistance to trail erosion of different soil
types in the Seven Rila Lakes Cirque. It uses trail width and trail maximum depth data collected in the field at 31 points along the trail network. On this basis, it analyses the trail condition and the factors for the occurrence of trail erosion according to different soil types. The results show that soils in the Seven Rila Lakes Cirque are highly vulnerable to trail degradation. Trail widening is a problem in all soil types, but Orthic Umbrosols are the most affected. Trail incision is an issue of an irreversible nature in the cases of Lithic Leptosols and Umbric Leptosols. Umbric Gleysols are relatively to trail degradation. The study results can help make informed decisions for sustainable management of recreation activities in the Seven Rila Lakes Cirque.
... The temporality of those activities does not imply that their impacts are inconsequential (Green & Giese, 2004); for example, festivals produce impacts such as noise, lighting, waste, wastewater, or pollution by visitors' car trips (Collins & Cooper, 2017;Gibson & Wong, 2011). In addition, significant impacts can occur as soon as activities begin; for example, impacts on vegetation and soils may occur with only slight public use (Andrés-Abellán et al., 2005;Cole & Fichtler, 1983;Cole & Marion, 1988;Leung & Marion, 1996, 2000Manning, 1979). In addition, some short-term activities may be practiced by a large number of people simultaneously, or involve a large number of participants or spectators at the same time, leading to an accumulation of impacts. ...
... B. Weaver, 2002). Shore erosion, alteration and pollution of fish habitat, collisions with animals, noise, air pollution, seagrass and coral damage, vibrations, turbulence Bennett (1998), Green and Giese (2004), Kruer (1998), Priskin (2003), Tjärnlund et al. (1996), Zajicek and Wolter (2019) Motorized vehicles (other) Soil compaction, damage to vegetation, weed and pathogen dispersal, wildfires, pollution, noise, reduction in the biota Buckley (2004), Luckenbach and Bury (1983), T. Weaver and Dale (1978), Wilson and Seney (1994) Snowmobiling, snowcat skiing Wildlife disturbance Simpson and Terry (2000) (Continued) (2014), Blanc et al. (2006), Brown et al. (1977), Burden and Randerson (1972), Cole and Bayfield (1993), Farías andSallent (2009), Fredline (2005), Goeft and Alder (2001), Gómez-Limón and De Lucio (1995), Hennings (2017), Hylgaard and Liddle (1981), Leung and Marion (1996), Leung and Marion (2000), Liddle (1991), Littlemore and Barlow (2005) ...
Temporary activities and events may have significant environmental impacts. However, they are often outside the scope of environmental assessment (EA) processes. Environmental requirements in authorisation processes of activities are rare, except for some major events in sensitive areas. This paper analyses firstly the environmental impacts of outdoor temporary activities and events through a literature review; all the analysed activities may have significant negative impacts. Then the authorisation of temporary activities, and their inclusion in EA systems, in a sample of jurisdictions worldwide was analysed. Applying EA processes is more an exception than a rule for temporary activities. The paper discusses the factors that influence activities' impacts, the conflict between precaution and operation, and the benefits and drawbacks of the application of different EA schemes to temporary activities, concluding with some proposals to improve the consideration of environmental aspects in activities' authorisation. Before the authorisation of activities and events, their environmental impacts should be analysed, and taken into account. This can be achieved through regulations in management plans submitted to strategic environmental assessment, through screening processes or through environmental impact assessment when significant impacts are expected. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;00:0-0. © 2023 SETAC.
... However, some early studies did seek to identify factors influencing the severity of trail degradation (e.g., Bayfield, 1973;Bratton et al., 1979), followed later by multivariate modeling analyses to ascertain their relative influence (Marion, 1994). A comprehensive review of the literature by Leung and Marion (1996) described additional influential factors and documented relationships to different types of trail degradation. However, these early trail science findings were not distilled into sustainable BMP trail design and management guidance until 2004, in a book chapter titled "Environmentally Sustainable Trail Management" (Marion and Leung, 2004). ...
... Soil loss (+) 1 Dixon et al., 2004;Eagleston & Marion, 2020;Dissmeyer & Foster, 1984;Farrell & Marion, 2001;Goeft & Alder, 2001;Marion & Wimpey, 2017;Meadema et al., 2020;Nepal, 2003;Olafsdottir & Runnstrom, 2013;Olive & Marion, 2009;Selkimaki & Mola-Yudego, 2011;Storck, 2011;Svajda et al., 2016;Wallin & Hardin, 1996;Wilson & Seney, 1994 Trail width (+ for steep fall line trails) Bayfield & Aitken, 1992;Marion, 1994;Meadema et al., 2020;Selkimaki & Mola-Yudego, 2011;Stevenson et al., 2022 Trail muddiness (-) Marion, 1994;Meadema et al., 2020;Nepal, 2003 Recent research reveals that a trail's alignment relative to the prevailing landform slope, from fall line to contour line, can be as influential to soil loss as TG, though the management literature seldom emphasizes this relationship (Marion and Wimpey, 2017;. Named the trail slope alignment (TSA) by Leung and Marion (1996), trails aligned close to the fall line become more susceptible to soil loss as LGs increase because water in their incised treads drains down-trail, with higher but equivalent side-slopes preventing tread drainage to either side (Table 1, Figure 3). Steep fall-aligned treads erode quickly, exposing roots and rocks that visitors move laterally to avoid, causing trail widening that is undeterred by flatter side-slopes ( Figure 2a, Table 1) (Stevenson et al., 2022). ...
Protected areas (PAs) provide many important recreational, social, and economic benefits that are largely dependent on their ability to sustain visitation. Trail networks are a critical tourism infrastructure element that directly accommodate high quality recreation activities and experiences while providing access to and protection of irreplaceable natural and cultural resources. Unfortunately, most trail networks consist of historic "legacy" trails that were not sustainably designed and whose intensive use cause unacceptable impacts to PA resources, experiences, and values. This paper provides an international state-of-knowledge review of trail science research within the field of recreation ecology to describe common trail impacts, factors that influence trail degradation that trail stewards can manipulate to enhance the sustainability of trail networks. Two emerging models that seek to rate trail topographic sustainability are presented to illustrate their potential utility to PA managers. Expanding and incorporating trail science research into the sustainable trail planning, design, and Best Management Practice literature are also discussed.
