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The ∼37 million-year-old Birket Qarun Locality 2 (BQ-2), in the Birket Qarun Formation of Egypt's Fayum Depression, yields evidence for a diverse primate fauna, including the earliest known lorisiforms, parapithecoid anthropoids, and Afradapis longicristatus, a large folivorous adapiform. Phylogenetic analysis has placed Afradapis as a stem strepsi...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... and dentitions representing our comparative sample come from the AMNH, DPC, HTB, JU, UALVP, UM, and SBU. Taxo- nomically, this sample is comprised of astragali of Creta- ceous mammals [including a ''condylarthran'' (Protun- gulatum), a cimolestid (Procerberus), and a possible euarchontan (Deccanolestes)], Paleocene plesiadapiform euarchontans (Nannodectes and Plesiadapis), a tupaiid treeshrew (Tupaia), dermopterans (Cynocephalus), fossil omomyid (Hemiacodon) and adapiform (Adapis, Leptada- pis, Notharctus) euprimates, a previously undescribed specimen of a fossil anthropoid from the Fayum Depres- sion (Catopithecus), and extant Tarsius, strepsirrhines and platyrrhines (Table 1). ...
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... then took 24 linear and angular measurements on a sample of 29 fossil and extant primates and primate relatives (Fig. 1, Table 1). Measurements were either taken on surface reconstructions of bones that had been microCT scanned (using the computer program Amira) or from photographs of comparative specimens that could not be scanned, using Sigma Scan Pro 5.0. ...
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... variables were computed by calculating the geometric mean for each specimen using measurements 1, 4-15, and 17-18; dividing measure- ments 2-18 by the geometric mean, and then natural-log transforming these ratios. A size-standardized version of measurement 1 (overall proximodistal length) was not used in the PCoA because this information was incorpo- rated into shape variables computed from measurements 2 (trochlear length) and 3 (neck length), both of which were taken within the same plane as measurement 1 (see Appendix Table 1). Angular measurements 19-24 were also included in the PCoA. ...
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... analysis was intended to provide an estimate of the M 2 area expected for an individual with an astragalus whose dimensions match those of the new fossil. Tooth areas used are species means taken from the literature or measured from specimens housed mainly at the AMNH, USNM, and SBU (Table 1). We used SPSS 11.0 to generate regression parameters and prediction intervals for M 2 size given astragalus size. ...
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... maximum proximodistal length; 02, body proximodistal length; 03, head and neck proximodistal length; 04, fibular facet maximum dorsoplantar height; 05, fibular facet proximodistal length; 06, lateral tibial facet maximum proximodistal length along lateral margin; 07, lateral tibial facet maxi- mum mediolateral width; 08, medial tibial facet maximum dorsoplantar height; 09, lateral tibial facet maximum proximodistal length along medial margin; 10, ectal (posterior calcaneoastragalar) facet proximodistal length; 11, ectal (posterior calcaneoastraga- lar) facet mediolateral width; 12, flexor fibularis groove mediolateral width; 13, flexor fibularis groove proximodistal length; 14, sus- tentacular (anterior calcaneoastragalar) facet proximodistal length; 15, sustentacular (anterior calcaneoastragalar) facet mediolat- eral width; 16, sustentacular (anterior calcaneoastragalar) facet width of contact with navicular facet; 17, maximum mediolateral diameter of astragalar head; 18, maximum dorsoplantar height of astragalar head; 19, angle between fibular facet and lateral tibial facet; 20, angle between fibular facet and medial tibial facet; 21, angle between medial and lateral tibial facets; 22, angle between ectal (posterior calcaneoastragalar) facet and fibular facet; 23, angle between ectal (posterior calcaneoastragalar) facet axis and lat- eral tibial facet axis; 24, angle between major axis of head and plane of lateral tibial facet. See Appendix Table 1 for more detailed description of measurements. ...
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... of natural log of m 2 area on astragalus geomean yields a tight relationship (n 5 17, F 5 81, P \ 0.001; ln(m 2 area) 5 1.57 * ln(astragalus geometric mean) 1 0.10: r 2 5 0.84). However, scatter in the data suggests that anthropoids scale in a manner that is differ- ent from prosimians (strepsirrhines, adapiforms, Tarsius, Adapiform- strepsirrhine (Tree 1) Adapiform- strepsirrhine and Hemiacodon) in having larger astragalar geometric means relative to M 2 area (see Fig. 5). A Mann-Whitney U comparison of the ratio of the square root of M 2 area to the astragalar geometric mean confirms this, as anthro- poids have a significantly lower average ratio (U 5 8, P 5 0.02). ...
Context 7
... Gebo (1986) and subsequent studies (e.g., Dagosto, 1988;Dagosto and Gebo, 1994) documented that anthropoids and strepsirrhines differ systematically in the angle of the fibular facet relative to the tibial facet, this angle and these differences have never been widely quantified. Our 24th measurement captures the slope of the fibular facet (Table 1; Appendix Table 1; Figs. 1, 7). The angle between the fibular facet in anthropoids sampled here does not range above 1018 while no strepsirrhines have a value smaller than 1128 (Table 1; Fig. 7). ...
Citations
... The only adapiforms known from pedal elements 25 years ago were North American notharctids and European adapids from the middle Eocene (Dagosto, 1994). In the intervening years, adapiform pedal elements have been recovered from the Eocene of Africa (Boyer et al., 2010;Marivaux et al., 2011Marivaux et al., , 2013, India (Rose et al., 2009;Dunn et al., 2016), Myanmar (Beard et al., 2007), and China Gebo, Beard et al., 2015). Preserved in two shale slabs, the skeleton of the middle Eocene cercamoniine Darwinius masillae from Grube Messel, Germany, provides excellent documentation of relative proportions of the foot and digits (although comparisons that rely on 3D measurements are more challenging) (Franzen et al., 2009). ...
... Members of two adapiform subfamilies -adapines (Adapis, Leptadapis, Adapoides) and caenopithecines (Caenopithecus, Afradapis) -have been interpreted as more cautious climbers based on their pedal morphology (Dagosto, 1983;Boyer et al., 2010;Seiffert et al., 2015; but see Godinot, 1983). These taxa have tali with relatively shallow bodies and short and transversely broad heads. ...
... Phenetic similarities between asiadapines and other cautious climbing taxa are apparent in principal component analyses of tarsal features (Fig. 12.8). In these plots, asiadapines fall between extant lemuriforms and lorisids, along with the adapines Adapis parisiensis and Leptadapis magnus and the caenopithecine Afradapis longicristatus, other taxa that have all been interpreted as cautious climbers (Dagosto, 1983;Boyer et al., 2010). Compared to other adapiforms and most lemuriforms, fossils attributed to these taxa have deep and laterally positioned flexor fibularis grooves, little posterior trochlear shelf development, and very oblique fibular facet angles (Fig. 12.8a). ...
The Paleogene epoch was a dynamic time for mammalian evolution, including the fossil relatives of primates. Several adaptively significant features of the primate foot first appear in fossils from the Paleogene, and relatives of most extant primate groups are recognizable in the fossil record by the end of the Oligocene. This chapter reviews the morphology of the foot in Paleogene fossil groups (plesiadapiforms, adapiforms, omomyiforms, and early anthropoids) and focuses on recently discovered or described fossils to examine four key aspects of primate feet (e.g., hallucial metatarsal morphology, proximal tarsal morphology, digit ray proportions, and degree of pedal prehensility). After discussing the morphology of each fossil group, we compare the order of appearance of these features with predictions made by several adaptive hypotheses for primate origins and make recommendations for future research.
... Finally, it should be noted that a squatting facet also shows up in specialized slow climbers that do not leap. In slow climbers, the squatting facet apparently reflects a large range of mobility in the foot Boyer et al., 2010). However, slow climbers are clearly distinguished from clingers and leapers by other morphological traits including a short talar neck, a high neck angle, and a flattened talar head (Gebo, 1989;Boyer et al., 2010). ...
... In slow climbers, the squatting facet apparently reflects a large range of mobility in the foot Boyer et al., 2010). However, slow climbers are clearly distinguished from clingers and leapers by other morphological traits including a short talar neck, a high neck angle, and a flattened talar head (Gebo, 1989;Boyer et al., 2010). ...
The fossil record of early primates is largely comprised of dentitions. While teeth can indicate phylogenetic relationships and dietary preferences, they say little about hypotheses pertaining to the positional behavior or substrate preference of the ancestral crown primate. Here we report the discovery of a talus bone of the dentally primitive fossil euprimate Donrussellia provincialis. Our comparisons and analyses indicate that this talus is more primitive than that of other euprimates. It lacks features exclusive to strepsirrhines, like a large medial tibial facet and a sloping fibular facet. It also lacks the medially positioned flexor-fibularis groove of extant haplorhines. In these respects, the talus of D. provincialis comes surprisingly close to that of the pen-tailed treeshrew, Ptilocercus lowii, and extinct plesiadapiforms for which tali are known. However, it differs from P. lowii and is more like other early euprimates in exhibiting an expanded posterior trochlear shelf and deep talar body. In overall form, the bone approximates more leaping reliant euprimates. The phylogenetically basal signal from the new fossil is confirmed with cladistic analyses of two different character matrices, which place D. provincialis as the most basal strepsirrhine when the new tarsal data are included. Interpreting our results in the context of other recent discoveries, we conclude that the lineage leading to the ancestral euprimate had already become somewhat leaping specialized, while certain specializations for the small branch niche came after crown primates began to radiate.
... Many of the Colombian fossils from La Venta also have preserved tali (i.e., Neosamiri fieldsi, Aotus dindensis, Cebupithecia sarmientoi) and the Miocene Caribbean fossil of Paralouatta marianae is represented only by one talus (MacPhee et al., 2003). Furthermore, the talus is important because it has been suggested that its morphology could reflect postural adaptations, based on its central position in the foot as well as its functional relationship with other foot bones (Lisowski et al., 1974;Boyer et al., 2010Boyer et al., , 2015Yapuncich and Boyer, 2014;Yapuncich et al., 2015). The talus is the principal mechanical link between the leg and the foot, hence it is responsible for transmitting forces derived from an animal's body mass, as well as allowing mobility and providing stability during most postural and locomotor behaviors . ...
Platyrrhines are a diverse group of primates that presently occupy a broad range of tropical-equatorial environments in the Americas. However, most of the fossil platyrrhine species of the early Miocene have been found at middle and high latitudes. Although the fossil record of New World monkeys has improved considerably over the past several years, it is still difficult to trace the origin of major modern clades. One of the most commonly preserved anatomical structures of early platyrrhines is the talus. This work provides an analysis of the phenetic affinities of extant platyrrhine tali and their Miocene counterparts through geometric morphometrics and a series of phylogenetic comparative analyses. Geometric morphometrics was used to quantify talar shape affinities, while locomotor mode percentages (LMPs) were used to test if talar shape is associated with locomotion. Comparative analyses were used to test if there was convergence in talar morphology, as well as different models that could explain the evolution of talar shape and size in platyrrhines. Body mass predictions for the fossil sample were also computed using the available articular surfaces. The results showed that most analyzed fossils exhibit a generalized morphology that is similar to some ‘generalist’ modern species. It was found that talar shape covaries with LMPs, thus allowing the inference of locomotion from talar morphology. The results further suggest that talar shape diversification can be explained by invoking a model of shifts in adaptive peak to three optima representing a phylogenetic hypothesis in which each platyrrhine family occupied a separate adaptive peak. The analyses indicate that platyrrhine talar centroid size diversification was characterized by an early differentiation related to a multidimensional niche model. Finally, the ancestral platyrrhine condition was reconstructed as a medium-sized, generalized, arboreal, quadruped.
... 1924), as well as to infer positional behaviors in fossil taxa (Boyer and Seiffert, 2013;Boyer, Seiffert, & Simons, 2010;Boyer, Yapuncich, Butler, Dunn, & Seiffert, 2015;Dagosto, 1983;Dunn et al., 2016;Gebo and Simons, 1987;Gebo, 1988;Gebo, Dagosto, Beard, & Ni, 2008;Gebo, Dagosto, Beard, Qi, & Wang, 2000;Gebo, Dagosto, & Rose, 1991;Gebo, Smith, & Dagosto, 2012;Marig o, Roig, Seiffert, Moy a-Sol a, Marivaux et al., 2010;Marivaux et al., 2011;Seiffert and Simons, 2001;Seiffert, Costeur, & Boyer, 2015;). ...
... Despite the extensive use of talar morphology in studies of primate evolution, many distinguishing features of the talus have rarely been put into a quantitative comparative framework (Boyer and Seiffert, 2013;Boyer et al., 2010;Boyer et al., 2015;Dagosto, 1988;Gebo, 2011;Rose, Chester, Dunn, Boyer, & Bloch, 2011). Further development of and increased access to new technologies such as microcomputed tomography (lCT), three-dimensional (3D) digital models, and online databases of digital surface models such as Morphosource. ...
... 397) note "The sloping fibular facet and offset flexor sulcus [5FHLG] present in the Vastan tali also indicate adapoid (and probably strepsirrhine) affinities." The talus of Afradapis "exhibits a number of features that are observable in crown strepsirrhines and adapiform primates, including a groove for the tendon of the flexor fibularis that is proximolaterally positioned" (Boyer et al., 2010;p. 389). ...
Objective:
On the talus, the position and depth of the groove for the flexor hallucis longus tendon have been used to infer phylogenetic affinities and positional behaviors of fossil primates. This study quantifies aspects of the flexor hallucis longus groove (FHLG) to test if: (1) a lateral FHLG is a derived strepsirrhine feature, (2) a lateral FHLG reflects inverted and abducted foot postures, and (3) a deeper FHLG indicates a larger muscle.
Methods:
We used linear measurements of microCT-generated models from a sample of euarchontans (n?=?378 specimens, 125 species) to quantify FHLG position and depth. Data are analyzed with ANOVA, Ordinary and Phylogenetic Generalized Least Squares, and Bayesian Ancestral State Reconstruction (ASR).
Results:
Extant strepsirrhines, adapiforms, plesiadapiforms, dermopterans, and Ptilocercus exhibit lateral FHLGs. Extant anthropoids, subfossil lemurs, and Tupaia have medial FHLGs. FHLGs of omomyiforms and basal fossil anthropoids are intermediate between those of strepsirrhines and extant anthropoids. FHLG position has few correlations with pedal inversion features. Relative FHLG depth is not significantly correlated with body mass. ASRs support a directional model for FHLG position and a random walk model for FHLG depth.
Conclusions:
The prevalence of lateral FHLGs in many non-euprimates suggests a lateral FHLG is not a derived strepsirrhine feature. The lack of correlations with pedal inversion features suggests a lateral FHLG is not a sufficient indicator of strepsirrhine-like foot postures. Instead, a lateral FHLG may reduce the risk of tendon displacement in abducted foot postures on large diameter supports. A deep FHLG does not indicate a larger muscle, but likely reduces bowstringing during plantarflexion.
... The Fayum Depression in Egypt ( fig. 1) has been known as a source of abundant Paleogene fossil mammals since the late 1800s when collectors first began working in the region. Early anthropoid primates, hyracoids, rodents, proboscideans, macroscelideans, tenrecoids, hyaenodontids, embrithopods, and other mammals have emerged from Fayum deposits over many decades of field exploration (Dames, 1894;Andrews, 1901Andrews, , 1906Andrews and Beadnell, 1902;Osborn, 1908Osborn, , 1909Schlosser, 1910Schlosser, , 1911Wood, 1968;Gingerich, 1974, 1976;Simons and Kay, 1983;Simons, 1989Simons, , 1992Simons, , 1995Simons et al., 1991;Simons and Bown, 1995;Seiffert et al., 2003Seiffert et al., , 2005Seiffert et al., , 2008Seiffert et al., , 2009Boyer et al., 2010;Sallam et al., 2010aSallam et al., , 2010bSallam et al., , 2011. While relatively rare, in recent years bats from the Fayum have proven to be both diverse and biogeographically significant (Sigé, 1985;Gunnell et al., 2008Gunnell et al., , 2014. ...
... The presence of nearshore marine layers both above and below the BQ-2 mammal-bearing layers suggests that the BQ-2 deposits were deposited very close to the coast , but the ichthyofauna that is associated with the fossil described here includes freshwater fishes, attesting to the terrestrial riverine nature of the deposit (Murray et al., 2010). Abundant, fairly complete, unabraded jaws and postcranial bones of arboreal primates are also found in the same deposit, suggesting that the area around BQ-2 was densely forested (Seiffert et al., 2003(Seiffert et al., , 2005(Seiffert et al., , 2009Boyer et al., 2010). Icaronycteridae F F F Jepsen, 1966;Smith et al., 2012 Archaeonycteridae F F Revilliod, 1917;Smith et al., 2012 Hassianycteridae F F Smith et al., 2012 Palaeochiropterygidae F F F Revilliod, 1917;Smith et al. 2012 Aegyptonycteridae F This paper ...
A new fossil from the Late Eocene BQ-2 locality in the Birket Qarun Formation in the Fayum Depression of northern Egypt (dated to similar to 37 mybp) does not fit within the diagnosis of any previously described family of bats from Africa or any other continent. Known from a partial maxilla, this taxon has dilambdodont tribosphenic molars with a well-developed, symmetrical, W-shaped ectoloph lacking a distinct mesostyle but with a strong parastyle and shallow U-shaped ectoflexus-all traits that are found in most archaic bat families and that are probably plesiomorphic for bats. However, this taxon also has an M2 with a large metaconule cusp and a large, bulbous hypocone set low on the posterolingual corner of the tooth, neither of which occur in any known bat family, living or extinct. Also notable is the size of the new BQ-2 bat, which appears to have been approximately the same size as the largest extant bats with dilambdodont dentitions, falling well within the size range of plant-eating megabats and carnivorous bats from several extant lineages. The combination of traits in the new BQ-2 bat suggests that it was omnivorous, probably including insects, small vertebrates, and plant material its diet. In this regard it represents an ecological niche previously unknown among archaic Eocene bats, which are otherwise thought to have been strictly animalivorous. Because extinct Eocene bat families exhibit considerable mosaic evolution in morphological traits, do not seem to have inhabited a uniform ecological niche, and do not form a monophyletic group, we argue against use of the name "Eochiroptera" to collectively refer to these taxa.
... We selected only articles published since 2010 because almost every recently published matrices contained some of the morphological characters and OTUs from previous studies, thus almost all older studies are represented in the matrices we collected. For example, the six living primates used in [1] (Aotus trivirgatus, Galago demidoff, Lemur catta, Microcebus murinus, Nycticebus coucang and Saimiri sciureus) and their associated characters are reused along with more living species and characters in [2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. ...
... Supplementary Online Material (SOM) Figure 1 shows the terminology used in the text. The astragali and calcanei attributed to A. frontanyensis have been measured from surface scans following the methodology used by Boyer et al. (2010) and Marivaux et al. (2011) for the astragali and that of Gladman et al. (2013) for the calcanei. Measurements as in Boyer and Seiffert (2013) were also taken. ...
... The lateral tibial facet forms an angle of 108.5 with the fibular facet following the protocol of Boyer and Seiffert (2013) (Table 2, FFS). Using the measurement protocol from Boyer et al. (2010) (representing a more preliminary approach) the facet slope is more obtuse 111.7 (see Table 2, measurement 24). Both methods for measuring the slope of the fibular facet confirm that it is obliquely oriented and slopes outward from the lateral trochlear rim, forming the prominently pointed projection of the lateral astragalar process. ...
... There is no superior astragalar foramen, the lack of which is typical of euprimates, but possibly differentiates A. frontanyensis from some specimens of Marcgodinotius, Notharctus, and Smilodectes. Among other living and extinct primates, Adapis, Afradapis, Megaladapis, and lorises also have a superior astragalar foramen in at least some individuals (Dagosto, 1983;Godinot, 1991;Boyer et al., 2010). ...
... The Fayum Depression in Egypt ( fig. 1) has been known as a source of abundant Paleogene fossil mammals since the late 1800s when collectors first began working in the region. Early anthropoid primates, hyracoids, rodents, proboscideans, macroscelideans, tenrecoids, hyaenodontids, embrithopods, and other mammals have emerged from Fayum deposits over many decades of field exploration (Dames, 1894;Andrews, 1901Andrews, , 1906Andrews and Beadnell, 1902;Osborn, 1908Osborn, , 1909Schlosser, 1910Schlosser, , 1911Wood, 1968;Gingerich, 1974, 1976;Simons and Kay, 1983;Simons, 1989Simons, , 1992Simons, , 1995Simons et al., 1991;Simons and Bown, 1995;Seiffert et al., 2003Seiffert et al., , 2005Seiffert et al., , 2008Seiffert et al., , 2009Boyer et al., 2010;Sallam et al., 2010aSallam et al., , 2010bSallam et al., , 2011. While relatively rare, in recent years bats from the Fayum have proven to be both diverse and biogeographically significant (Sige, 1985;Gunnell et al., 2008Gunnell et al., , 2014. ...
... The presence of near¬ shore marine layers both above and below the BQ-2 mammal-bearing layers suggests that the BQ-2 deposits were deposited very close to the coast , but the ich¬ thyofauna that is associated with the fossil described here includes freshwater fishes, attesting to the terrestrial riverine nature of the deposit (Murray et al., 2010). Abundant, fairly com¬ plete, unabraded jaws and postcranial bones of arboreal primates are also found in the same deposit, suggesting that the area around BQ-2 was densely forested (Seiffert et al., 2003(Seiffert et al., , 2005(Seiffert et al., , 2009Boyer et al., 2010). Simmons et al., 2008;Smith et al., 2012 Icaronycteridae F F F lepsen, 1966;Smith et al., 2012 Archaeonycteridae F F Revilliod, 1917;Smith et al., 2012 Hassianycteridae F F Smith et al., 2012 Palaeochiropterygidae F F F Revilliod, 1917;Smith et al. 2012 Aegyptonycteridae F This paper Philisidae F Sige, 1985;Gunnell et al., 2008;Smith et al., 2012 Tanzanycteridae F Gunnell et al., 2003 Mixopterygidae F Maitre et al., 2008;Smith et al., 2012 Necromantidae F F Sige, 2011a Speonycteridae F Czaplewski and Morgan, 2012 Pteropodidae F X X X X X X Gray, 1821; Aguilar et al., 1986;Qui et al., 1985;Ducrocq et al., 1993;Sim¬ mons, 2005b;Gunnell, 2010 Rhinolophidae X X X X X X Gray, 1825;Simmons, 2005b Hipposideridae F X X X X X X Flower and Lydekker, 1891;McKenna and Bell, 1997;Simmons, 2005b Rhinonycteridae F X X X X Gray, 1866a;Foley et al., 2014 Megadermatidae X X X X X Allen, 1864;Simmons, 2005b Rhinopomatidae F X X X X Bonaparte, 1838;Sim¬ mons, 2005b;Hulva et al., 2007Craseonycteridae X Hill, 1974Simmons, 2005b Emballonuridae X X F X X X X X X Gervais, 1855;Storch et al., 2002;Simmons, 2005b Nycteridae F X X X X Van der Hoeven, 1855; Simmons, 2005b;Sige, 2011b Thomas, 1904;Simmons, 2005b;Gunnell et al., 2014 Mystacinidae F X Dobson, 1875;Hand et al., 1998Hand et al., , 2005Simmons, 2005b Phyllostomidae X X X X X X X Dobson, 1875;Simmons, 2005;Miller-Butterworth et al., 2007Cistugidae X Simmons, 2005bLack et al., 2010 In 2006 excavations at BQ-2 resulted in discovery of a maxilla fragment with two teeth that appears to be a fossil bat but one that does not fit within the diagnosis of any previously described family of bats from Africa or any other continent. ...
... The reconstruction of the ecology, behaviour and lifestyle of extinct species of mammals is a subject that has been of interest to many evolutionary biologists and palaeontologists (Bock and von Wahlert 1965;Gonyea 1978;Damuth 1981;Gould and Vrba 1982;Van Valkenburgh 1984, 1985, 1987Ewer 1973;Taylor 1989;Damuth and MacFadden 1990;Vrba 1992;Janis and Wilhelm 1993;Jones and Stoddart 1998;Iwaniuk et al. 1999Iwaniuk et al. , 2000Yalden 1999;Ruff 2000;Argot 2001Argot , 2003aArgot , b, 2004Andersson 2003Andersson , 2004aAndersson , b, 2005Schmitt 2003;Salesa et al. 2005Salesa et al. , 2010Schutz and Guralnick 2007;Webb and Sparrow 2007;Boyer and Bloch 2008;Boyer et al. 2010a;Polly 2008;Polly and Macleod 2008;Samuels and Van Valkenburgh 2008;Flores and Díaz 2009;Meachen-Samuels and Van Valkenburgh 2009;Figueirido and Janis 2011;Halenar 2011;Ercoli et al. 2012;Samuels et al. 2013;Meachen-Samuels 2012;Walmsley et al. 2012;Meloro et al. 2013;Janis and Figueirido 2014;Martín-Serra et al. 2014). Indeed, the investigation of fossil organisms is fundamental to understanding the evolutionary history of species (Simpson 1953;Slater et al. 2012). ...
Inferences of function and ecology in extinct taxa have long been a subject of interest because it is fundamental to understand the evolutionary history of species. In this study, we use a quantitative approach to investigate the locomotor behaviour of Simocyon batalleri, a key taxon related to the ailurid family. To do so, we use 3D surface geometric morphometric approaches on the three long bones of the forelimb of an extant reference sample. Next, we test the locomotor strategy of S. batalleri using a leave-one-out cross-validated linear discriminant analysis. Our results show that S. batalleri is included in the morphospace of the living species of musteloids. However, each bone of the forelimb appears to show a different functional signal suggesting that inferring the lifestyle or locomotor behaviour of fossils can be difficult and dependent on the bone investigated. This highlights the importance of studying, where possible, a maximum of skeletal elements to be able to make robust inferences on the lifestyle of extinct species. Finally, our results suggest that S. batalleri may be more arboreal than previously suggested
... Not surprisingly, more comprehensive and inclusive studies following rigorous cladistic methodology confirm our narrow results and strongly refute Gingerich's (2012) hypothesis (e.g. Boyer et al. 2010;Seiffert et al. 2010;Williams et al. 2010;Pattinson et al. 2014). Again, the only way that one can reconstruct Darwinius as a haplorhine, even using Gingerich's own preferred codings, is to effectively ignore relevant phylogenetic information by unjustifiably excluding a number of important characters and taxa because they are Bincomplete^. ...
In his recent article “Primates in the Eocene”, Gingerich (2012) presented a broad review of Eocene primate radiations and their place in the primate evolutionary tree, with a particular focus on Adapoidea. While synthetic reviews of early primate evolution are always welcome additions to the literature, within his larger analysis Gingerich (2012) specifically discussed two issues that deserve special comment, the first relating to the evolution of grooming claws within Adapoidea and the second relating to his phylogenetic interpretation of Darwinius and Adapoidea within the order Primates, which was supposedly based on a modification of our own final matrix in Maiolino et al. (2012). Unfortunately, as we will demonstrate below, in both cases the interpretations of Gingerich (2012) are unlikely to be correct.First, Gingerich (2012) characterises the morphology of Notharctus pedal distal phalanges as “ambiguous”. In fact, there is very little ambiguity involved. The analyses provided in ...