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This study examined the relationships between specific communication behaviors and overall perceptions of Black and White communicators and sought to replicate the findings of Leonard and Locke. Eighteen communication behaviors were identified in the literature representing "Black" and "White" communication. Black (N = 105) and White (N = 159) resp...
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Discrimination towards members of low-status groups takes a variety of forms, and results in a variety of negative consequences for its victims. Furthermore, discrimination may influence its targets either directly (for instance, when housing discrimination makes insurance, mortgage rates, or rents higher for African Americans than for whites) or i...
Citations
... Stereotyping has been shown to occur automatically, without a person's conscious intent (Devine and Monteith, 1999). Even people who try not to be prejudiced rely on stereotypes without being aware of it (Hughes and Baldwin, 2002). This includes journalists, who are advised by codes of ethics to avoid stereotyping (Society of Professional Journalists, 2018;National Union of Journalists, 2011), yet much research shows that news content perpetuates stereotypes. ...
Boy bands have long been disparaged in music journalism, in part because of their association with teenage and prepubescent girls who are their primary fans. This study uses media stereotypes of musicians and their fans to see how the interplay of age and gender among these two constituencies is associated with negative stereotyping in music journalism. This study fills a gap in scholarship with a quantitative comparison of how modern boy bands and their fans are stereotypically portrayed compared to non-boy bands and their fanbases in a generalizable way. A content analysis of UK and U.S. music journalism from 2010 to 2015 finds that young women music fans continue to be stereotyped, and that boy bands are diminished through stereotypes that are gendered feminine, most prominently about their age and youth, authenticity of the music, and innocent sexuality. However, the boy bands were not diminished through feminine tropes more closely aligned with women fans, such as with the use of emotional language. Being young and male does not automatically mean marginalization and stereotyping, however – the young men in the non-boy bands were consistently referred to in non-stereotypical ways.
... First impressions often stem from quick judgments, forming the basis of interpersonal judgments and stereotyping, which involve automatic categorization of people based on race, age, and sex (Nelson, 2005). These impressions can be a barrier to forming perceptual schemas, social contact, and interpersonal communication (Hughes & Baldwin, 2002). The visibility of these categories facilitates the generalization of individuals or groups. ...
Stereotyping and discrimination against hijab-wearing women have been studied extensively in many Western countries, which are home to Muslim diasporas. However, there is a paucity of research on Muslim-majority countries. The purpose of this study is to address this gap and explore interpersonal attitudes toward both hijab-wearing and non-hijab-wearing women, in Pakistan, a Muslim Majority country. In this paper, we used the presence or absence of hijab as the independent variable, and measured competence and warmth using items from the Stereotype Content Model (SCM), as well as social and task attraction using items from the Interpersonal Attraction Scale (IAS) as dependent variables. Study 1 included 352 undergraduate students, while Study 2 involved 151 human resource professionals. The findings from both studies were consistent in suggesting that participants had a higher attribution of competence, warmth, and social and task attraction toward the hijab-wearing women compared to the non-hijab-wearing women. Conversely, participants in the non-hijab condition attributed lower levels of warmth, competence, and social and task attraction. We interpret these findings such that in a homogeneous society, individuals who strongly identify with and internalize Muslim culture, and exhibit a preference for their own cultural and religious values (cultural endogamy), attribute higher levels of competence, warmth, social attraction, and task attraction to the protagonist who wears hijab. This research has implications for employment opportunities and attitudes toward women in the workplace in Muslim-majority countries, both for hijabis (women who wear a headscarf) and non-hijabis (women who do not wear hijab).
... In this way, schemas can trigger or facilitate stereotypes, among other negative thought processes. They do this automatically, without intention or even consciousness of the stereotypical response the schema awakens (Hughes and Baldwin, 2002). This behavior is known as the automaticity of stereotyping; when there is a conflict between what we expect to happen and what we observe happening, unless we actively know and try not to stereotype, we revert to stereotypes automatically (Lasorsa and Dai, 2007). ...
This study updates and expands the application of stereotyping and professional socialization to music journalism in a way that is generalizable to the United States music journalism industry, and seeks to understand the role women journalists play in counteracting or perpetuating stereotyping of women musicians. A content analysis of 936 articles finds significant stereotyping of women musicians in major US music publications during 2016. The stories, randomly sampled from eight top US publications, were predominantly about men artists and by men authors, and were more likely to discuss women musicians’ appearance and relationships, and used more sexualized and emotional language. Improvement was found in that articles were no more likely to discuss women musicians’ age and youth than men’s. Women journalists were just as likely to stereotype women musicians as men journalists were, and more so in one category. We expand stereotyping by incorporating insights from professional socialization and applying it to the ‘soft news’ yet male-dominated field of music journalism, adding to our knowledge of hard news fields such as politics, business and sports. It also updates the few studies of music journalism from decades ago, showing little progress in the blatant stereotyping of women musicians
... In the intercultural communication process, when people of dissimilar cultural backgrounds interact with one another, they are likely to rely on their preconceived stereotypes concerning certain cultural groups [34]. In our study, GPs seemed to be too busy to raise and reflect upon their own cultural and socioeconomic background, and eventually their stereotypes, bias or prejudices towards patients with different backgrounds. ...
Objective: To explore health care providers’ (HCPs) experiences regarding cervical cancer screening (CCS) among immigrant women, their strategies to facilitate these consultations and their need for further information.
Design: Exploratory qualitative design.
Setting: HCPs who perform CCS: general practitioners, midwives and private gynaecologists, working in Oslo, Norway.
Subjects: We interviewed 26 general practitioners, 3 midwives and 3 gynaecologists.
Method: Both focus groups and personal in depth semi structured interviews. Interview transcripts were analysed using a thematic analysis approach.
Results: Some of the HCPs’ experiences related to CCS were common for all women regardless of their immigrant background, such as the understanding of routines and responsibilities for prevention. Aspects specific for immigrant women were mainly related to organization, language, health literacy levels, culture and gender. Several strategies targeting organizational (longer consultations), language (using interpreters), health literacy (using anatomy models to explain) and culture (dealing with the expression of pain) were reported.
Most HCPs had not previously reflected upon specific challenges linked to CCS among immigrant women, thus the interviews were an eye-opener to some extent. HCPs acknowledged that they need more knowledge on immigrant women’s’ reproductive health.
Conclusion: HCPs’ biases, stereotypes and assumptions could be a key provider-level barrier to low uptake of CCS test among immigrants if they remained unexplored and unchallenged. HCPs need more information on reproductive health of immigrant women in addition to cultural awareness.
• Key Points
• The participation rate of immigrant women to cervical cancer screening in Norway is low, compared to non-immigrants. This might be partly attributed to health care system and provider, and not only due to the women’s preferences. Our focus groups and interviews among health care providers show, that in addition to cultural competence and awareness, they need knowledge on reproductive health of immigrants. We recommend an intervention targeting health care providers to close the gap in cervical cancer screening.
... In the intercultural communication process, when people of dissimilar cultural backgrounds interact with one another, they are likely to rely on their preconceived stereotypes concerning certain cultural groups [34]. In our study, GPs seemed to be too busy to raise and reflect upon their own cultural and socioeconomic background, and eventually their stereotypes, bias or prejudices towards patients with different backgrounds. ...
... Likewise, the participants' responses discussed in the Stereotypes section reveal that their stereotypes can largely determine their expectations toward ELLs and affect their pedagogical styles when working with ELLs. In this regard, Hughes and Baldwin (2002) found correlational relationships between communication behavior and stereotypes in their investigation of 159 white and 104 black college students in the US. These scholars found that individual communication behaviors are associated with negative racial stereotypes, which influence interpersonal interaction. ...
... These scholars found that individual communication behaviors are associated with negative racial stereotypes, which influence interpersonal interaction. Indeed, Hughes and Baldwin (2002) concluded that stereotypes are one of the major "stumbling blocks in effective communication" (p. 125) across people from different cultures and race. ...
... 125) across people from different cultures and race. Along this line of thought, Hughes and Baldwin (2002) argued that racial stereotyping contributes to the unequal educational outcomes for the students of color. Yet, it is easy for institutions and teachers to attribute the unequal outcomes to the students of color because they see their stereotypical understanding of the students of color as given facts, just as the participants in this study likely have thought that their perceptions were natural and neutral. ...
Using the concept of racial microaggressions as an analytical tool, this study reports on white monolingual pre-service teachers’ self-identified linguistic microaggressions by exploring their attitudinal and affective responses to those who speak languages other than English. The assumption is that teachers’ pedagogical practices and their relationship with students are not contained within classrooms but are rather intertwined with their lives outside the classroom and their thinking in everyday context. The themes identified by analyzing the self-identified linguistic microaggressions of the participating pre-service teachers are (1) Self-consciousness/discomfort, worry, fear, anxiety, and frustration; (2) Judgments: (un)intelligence, (dis)likability, and (un)trustworthiness; (3) (In)appropriateness and English dominance; and (4) Stereotypes. This study also reports the findings pertaining to the participants’ reflections on the factors that contribute to difficulties they face when attempting to engage in self-identifying linguistic microaggressions. The common challenges among these monolingual pre-service teachers are: (1) Identification and commitment are not enough; (2) Am I a bad person? and (3) Unconscious dispositions. The significance of this study stems from its exploration of the white pre-service teachers’ self-identification of microaggressions as opposed to those identified by the victims of microaggressions. By using the concept of microaggressions as the main analytical tool, the study reveals that the dominant members who are microaggressive toward language subordinate group members must understand, recognize, and acknowledge their microaggressions if they are to more productively support English language learners (ELLs) succeed socially and academically. The study offers implications for educators working with ELLs as well as for the field of teacher education.
... Stereotypes of speech are important to study because they not only describe how things are but also prescribe how things should be in social interactions (Popp, Donovan, Crawford, Marsh, & Peele, 2003). Stereotypes may actually prevent effective communication between people (Biernat & Vescio, 1983;Hughes & Baldwin, 2002). Importantly, research has indicated that when White women deviate from stereotypes by speaking assertively, they may be judged negatively as a result (Carli, 2001;Crawford, 1995). ...
... Previous studies have documented that gender and racial stereotypes (specifically, stereotypes regarding African Americans) include beliefs about communication style (Edelsky, 1976;Hughes & Baldwin, 2002;Kramarae, 1981;Lakoff, 1973;Leonard & Locke, 1993;Ogawa, 1971;Popp et al., 2003;Rich, 1974;Siegler & Siegler, 1976). With only one exception (Popp et al., 2003), however, studies have failed to examine race and gender stereotypes about speech style in the same study. ...
... Similarly, research indicates that Black people's speech is stereotyped as loud and aggressive (Hughes & Baldwin, 2002;Leonard & Locke, 1993;Ogawa, 1971;Popp et al., 2003). The little empirical research that has been done in this area indicates that White participants typically rate Black people's speech as being more emotional, aggressive, talkative, straightforward, and argumentative-in sum, less socially appropriate (Leonard & Locke, 1993;Niemann, Jennings, Rozelle, Baxter, & Sullivan, 1994;Ogawa, 1971). ...
Previous research has documented that gender and racial stereotypes affect beliefs about communication style. This study sought to investigate whether these stereotypes would be replicated in a sample of White working adults and whether participants thought that a social skills training program that is usually targeted at women would have an impact on managerial targets’ speech. Results indicated that racial stereotypes were more salient than gender stereotypes, with participants viewing White managers’ speech as more socially appropriate and less emotional, but also as more dominant and articulate than Black managers’ speech. Participants also perceived female managers’ speech as more emotional than male managers’. After training, participants thought that men’s and White managers’ speech would become more emotional, despite the fact that this training has been targeted specifically at female managers. Overall, our findings highlight the importance of examining race and gender in evaluating managerial communication.
... Indeed, communication between individuals from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds is a symbolic exchange process (intercultural communication) whereby these individuals negotiate shared meanings in an interactive situation [4]. In the intercultural communication process, when people of dissimilar cultural backgrounds interact with one another, they are likely to rely on the preconceived stereotypes that they have concerning certain cultural groups in the uncertainty-filled events [5]. Of particular importance is the interpersonal intercultural interaction between physicians and patients because it involves two parties that have divergent forms of communication that do not normally mesh well in the medical settings [6]. ...
Communication problems due to language and cultural differences between health care professionals and patients are widely recognized. Finns are described as more silent whereas one concurrent large immigrant group, the Somalis, are described as more open in their communication. The aim of the study was to explore physicians-nurses/midwives' communication when providing reproductive and maternity health care to Somali women in Finland. Four individual and three focus group interviews were carried out with 10 gynecologists/obstetricians and 15 nurses/midwives from five selected clinics. The health care providers considered communication (including linguistic difficulties), cultural traditions, and religious beliefs to be problems when working with Somali women. Male and female physicians were generally more similar in communication style, interpersonal contacts, and cultural awareness than the nurses/midwives who were engaged in more partnership-building with the Somali women in the clinics. Despite the communication and cultural problems, there was a tentative mutual understanding between the Finnish reproductive health care professionals and the Somali women in the clinics.
... Asian Americans are frequently characterized as having strong ties to family and showing high degrees of loyalty to the in-group (Hall, 1997; Ho & Jackson, 2001). However, earlier studies have shown that in spite of this strong sense of loyalty to family, a prevalent stereotype is that Asian Americans are viewed as being unsociable with members of the dominant group (Guthrie & Hutchinson, 1995; Hughes & Baldwin, 2002; Lin et al., 2005). Given these claims about perception of sociability with members of the in-group and the dominant group, the following hypothesis will be investigated. ...
The study investigated whether dividing Survivor: Cook Islands contestants by race resulted in activation of viewer stereotypes about competence and sociability associated with race. Although measures of race-ethnic stereotyping were masked in the questionnaire, several hypotheses for stereotype activation were supported. Viewers evaluated Hispanic Survivor contestants as significantly less competent than all other contestants. Consistent with predictions, Asian American, African American, and Hispanic American Survivor contestants were rated by viewers as significantly less sociable compared to European American Survivor contestants. Minority viewers revealed significant dislike for European American Survivor contestants. Contrary to what was predicted, viewers rated Asian American Survivor contestants as the least cohesive group. Social implications of racial division on Survivor: Cook Islands are discussed.
... Subtle but persistent negative stereotypes of Blacks are readily evoked, even in people who claim not to be prejudiced (Devine, 1989;Gaertner & McLaughlin, 1983). Unconscious evoking of stereotypes is thought to occur automatically and inescapably, without awareness (Devine & Monteith, 1999;Hughes & Baldwin, 2002). For this reason, the schemas journalists hold are relevant in news coverage. ...
Prior research has shown journalists often rely on gender and racial stereotypes when covering female and minority candidates running against a White, male for political office. This study uses a content analysis of newspaper articles and editorials to examine what changes, if any, occur in media coverage when a woman and a minority run against each other without a White, male candidate in the race. The findings of this research indicate that journalists in this study have made some progress in reducing stereotypes in their coverage; however, they are still covering candidates in significant stereotypical ways. Although these journalists are focusing less on appearance of candidates, the female candidate in this study received more coverage about her gender, and the minority candidate received more coverage of his race. Despite the candidates' previous experience to the contrary, these journalists still aligned the woman candidate with traditional female issues and the man with traditional male issues.
