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Mean biomass consumed per scat of Arvicola monticola (red) and Apodemus sp. (blue), along meteorological seasons (autumn, winter, spring and summer) in the Cantabrian Mountains (n = 683). Curves are smoothed by the LOESS method.
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Traditional agro‐pastoral practices are more beneficial for biodiversity than intensified agricultural systems. Promotion of the growth of natural herbaceous vegetation in pastoral fields can enhance rodent populations and consequently influence ecological aspects of carnivores with rodent‐based diets, like prey consumption in the European wildcat...
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... The hybridization rate in Slovenia appears to be lower compared to other countries (Urzi et al., 2021). Their feeding habits and diet have not been studied in Slovenia, but in the temperate distribution range they mainly feed on rodents while lagomorphs are mostly absent (Lozano et al., 2006;Ruiz-Villar et al., 2023c). Especially in winter, wildcats also scavenge on ungulate carcasses (Krofel et al., 2021a;Ruiz-Villar et al., 2020), including the prey remains of lynx (pers. ...
... Wildcats selected for lower slopes, main roads, vicinity of forest edges, caves and ridges. In contrast to lynx, which mostly hunt ungulates (Krofel et al., 2011), wildcats in temperate climates predominantly feed on rodents, especially voles and mice, and other small prey (Lozano et al., 2006;Ruiz-Villar et al., 2023c). There is limited knowledge on the distribution of voles and mice in the SDK, but avoidance of steep terrain and rocky features might be linked with higher rodent abundance in more productive habitats with deeper soil (Niedziałkowska et al., 2010). ...
... In line with the results of previous studies in other European countries (Klar et al., 2008;Jerosch et al., 2018), we observed the selection for the vicinity of forest edges and avoidance of human settlements. This could be explained by the fact that wildcats often hunt rodents on open habitats (i.e., meadows and pastures), along the forest edges and avoid vicinity of human settlements due to various disturbance factors (Klar et al., 2008;Beutel et al., 2017;Jerosch et al., 2018;Ruiz-Villar et al., 2023c). We also observed strong selection for main roads. ...
Geodiversity, encompassing various geophysical elements, can have an important impact on species distribution and affect animal behaviour patterns. Although many wild felids are attracted to rugged terrain and conspicuous relief features, most previous research was limited to general topographical characteristics (e.g., slope or terrain ruggedness) and rarely considered the effects of specific microhabitat characteristics. This gap is primarily due to the limited availability of high-resolution digital terrain models (DTMs) and relief features data at larger scales. However, LiDAR DTMs can be used in combination with various automatic methods to detect relief features, enabling non-contact and accurate mapping of large, remote and densely-forested areas. Here, we investigated the selection patterns of various karstic relief features, as well as topographic, anthropogenic and vegetation characteristics, by two sympatric felids, the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and the European wildcat (Felis silvestris), in the Dinaric Mountains, Slovenia. We used LiDAR DTMs to calculate topographic characteristics and detect karst relief features based on automatic methods. We compared the selection of these features between the GPS-collared lynx and wildcats under a use-availability approach. We also investigated the differences in the selection of these features by lynx based on their origin and experience (remnant vs. translocated and naive vs. experienced, respectively). We observed significant impact of relief features on space use by both felids and detected distinct selection patterns between the two species. Lynx selected rugged terrain and proximity of caves, cliffs, karst depressions, ridges, small rocky outcrops, and roads, but avoided human settlements and forest edges. Wildcats selected areas with lower surface slope, closer to main roads, forest edges, caves and ridges, but avoided cliffs, forest roads and human settlements. We observed stronger selection/avoidance patterns among the translocated compared to the remnant lynx, while the differences in experience levels were less important. Our study demonstrates the potential of integrating remote sensing techniques and information on geodiversity into the study of animal spatial ecology. Furthermore, our results indicate that specific relief features provide important abiotic microhabitats for felids and may influence habitat segregation between sympatric species. Our findings provide further evidence for the importance of geodiversity conservation and the need to incorporate abiotic microhabitat features in wildlife habitat selection studies.
... The European wildcat has a widespread but patchy Table 1 Summary of the 28 variables and the scales at which they were identified as important (m). Further details can be found in Appendix 1. (Parent, 1975;Ragni, 1981;Schauenberg, 1981;Stahl and Leger, 1992;Lozano et al., 2003;Hötzel et al., 2007;Liberek 1999, Dietz et al. 2015, Jerosch et al., 2010, Lozano, 2010, Lozan and Korcmar, 1965, Heptner and Sludskii, 1972, Dimitrijevic and Habijan, 1977, Scott et al., 1993, Nowell and Jackson, 1996, Corbett 1979, Oliveira et al., 2018, Migli et al., 2021, Ruiz-Villar et al., 2023 and areas to hunt in, including agricultural crop fields, pasture, scrub and riparian areas (Wittmer, 2001;Corbett, 1979;Stahl et al., 1988;Biro et al., 2004;Jerosch et al., 2018;Streif et al., 2016). Wildcats tend to avoid areas of high altitude (>1300 m in continental Europe) due to the harsher climatic conditions and increased snow cover (e.g. ...
... Similarly, grassland is an important habitat for wildcat hybrids and wildcats, because it provides prey including small mammals and in some areas rabbits (e.g. Silva et al., 2012, Portanier et al., 2022, Ruiz-Villar et al., 2023 and often supports scrub habitat such as gorse along its edges which is an important resting site habitat . Linear features are often used for movement by many carnivores, roads and tracks are used to traverse quickly across their home ranges (e. g. ...
... Schauenberg, 1981;Dötterer & Bernhart 1996;Mermod & Liberek 2002;Anile et al., 2019). Wildcats and wildcat hybrids are considered to be facultative specialists, preferentially taking rabbits where available but otherwise small rodents followed by other prey such as birds (Piechocki 1990;Malo et al., 2004;Lozano et al., 2006;2006;Delahay et al., 1998;Germain et al., 2009;Anile et al., al., 2012;Ruiz-Villar et al., 2023). ...
Species distribution modeling is widely used to quantify and predict species-environment relationships. Most past
applications and methods in species distribution modeling assume context independent and stationary relationships between patterns of species occurrence and environmental variables. There has been relatively little research investigating context dependence and nonstationarity in species distribution modeling. In this paper we explore spatially varying limiting factors in species-environment relationships using high resolution telemetry
data from 14 individual wildcat hybrids distributed across geographical and environmental gradients in Scotland. (1) We proposed that nonstationary limiting factors would be indicated by significant association between statistical measures of variability of predictors and the predictive importance of those variables. (2) We further proposed that most of the limiting factor relationships observed would be related to spatial variation and a lesser amount to mean value of environmental variables within individual study sites. (3) Additionally, we anticipated that when there was a relationship between variation of an environmental factor and its importance as a predictor this relationship would be positive, such that higher variation would be associated with higher importance of the variable as a predictor (following the theory of limiting factors). (4) Conversely, we proposed that when
there was a relationship between the mean value of an environmental variable and its importance as a predictor this relationship would be roughly evenly split between positive and negative relationships, given that environmental variables could become limiting either when they are highly abundant or high value, or when they are rare or low value in a particular landscape, depending on the nature of the species-environment relationship for that ecological variable. (5) Finally, we hypothesized that the frequency of supported limiting factor relationships would differ among variable groups, with variables that were directly related to key environmental resources more likely to be limiting than those that would have more indirect impacts on wildcat hybrid habitat
selection or foraging. Our results show that assumptions of global, stationary habitat associations are likely not met in many habitat models, requiring explicit consideration of scale and context dependence in a nonstationary modeling paradigm. We found that both the mean value and the standard deviation are strong predictors of whether that variable will be limiting and differentially important as a predictor of occurrence. We confirmed that limiting factors become more limiting when it has higher variability across the sampled data, or when it is rare or not abundant.
... European wildcats are the only wild felid species in most of their distribution range, and as mesocarnivores they play fundamental roles in ecosystems, such as predation upon small herbivores regulating primary productivity in ecosystems (Estes, Tinker, Williams, & Doak, 1998), contributing to nutrient cycling (Ben-David et al., 2005), and altering soil fertility (Maron et al., 2006). Although wildcats may find abundant prey in anthropogenic environments (Ruiz-Villar et al., 2022) encounters with humans in such locations may impact wildcats negatively through e.g. increased road mortality (Bastianelli et al., 2021) and increased stress levels (Piñeiro, Barja, Silván, & Illera, 2012). ...
... In this regard, research mainly focused on habitat selection (including sexual differences) based on GPS data (Jerosch, Kramer-Schadt, Götz, & Roth, 2018;Oliveira et al., 2018), and the selection of road crossing points across infrastructures which can act as movement barriers (Klar, Herrmann, & Kramer-Schadt, 2009;Rodriguez, Crema, & Delibes, 1997). Although behavioural data on wildcats is hard to obtain as this species is rarely observed across its distribution range, wildcat behaviour can be directly recorded and analysed in pastoral fields of the Cantabrian Mountains (NW Spain), used by wildcats with predation purposes (Jiménez-Albarral et al., 2021;Rodríguez et al., 2020;Ruiz-Villar et al., 2022). This combined with the presence of several potential sources of disturbance for wildcats using such environments (roads and traffic, villages, humans or livestock) create a rare opportunity to study the effects of human disturbance on wildcat behaviour through direct observations, something required to ensure effective wildcat conservation in future scenarios with increasing human presence. ...
... Taking advantage of the regular use of open pastoral fields by European wildcats with hunting purposes in the Cantabrian Mountains (Rodríguez et al., 2020;Ruiz-Villar et al., 2021;Ruiz-Villar et al., 2022), we searched for wildcats between August 2012 and December 2020 combining two methods: opportunistic observations either along transects in cars on main and secondary paved roads or from stationary points. We used binoculars, a telescope and a bridge camera (Swarovski Habicht 7x42; Swarovski ATS 65HD + Zoom 20X60, Swarovski Optik KG, Austria; and Canon PowerShot SX60 HS (Canon Inc., Japan)) to locate and film wildcats from a minimum distance of 200 m (to eliminate disturbance and potential alterations on wildcat behaviour). ...
Human activities and infrastructures can disturb wildlife and alter their behaviour by triggering anti-predator responses such as changes in time allocation to different behaviours. For instance, disturbance sources like traffic can cause significant variation in allocation of time to vigilance and foraging behaviours , which can be used as sensitive measures of the effects of human disturbance on animals. Such changes may ultimately result in physiological and ecological costs for the species. We used a unique opportunity to obtain direct behavioural observations of European wildcats, Felis silvestris, in the Can-tabrian Mountains (northwest Spain) to investigate how different sources of anthropogenic disturbance influence time allocation of wildcats to specific behaviours. We also analysed how traffic affects hunting and vigilance time budgets as well as hunting success. We found that wildcats allocated more time to being alert and less time to hunting, feeding and moving in the presence of humans than in undisturbed situations. Wildcats also allocated more time to hunting when traffic levels were high, near roads and further from villages. Similarly, they dedicated more time to vigilance behaviours while feeding in the presence of moving vehicles. Finally, hunting success in the presence of vehicles seemed to decrease more for female wildcats than for males although this effect was not significant. In conclusion, humans and traffic influence the behaviour of wildcats inhabiting pastoral anthropogenic landscapes, although it is difficult to know to what extent such changes may translate into demographic effects.
Little is known about the factors that drive nonstationarity and inter-individual differences in realized habitat niches and species-environment relationships. We explored this topic by developing individual habitat selection models for 14 wildcat hybrids distributed across Scotland, and assessed how differences in their predicted probabilities of occurrence were related to factors including (1) geographic distance, (2) multivariate ecological
distance, (3) difference in degree of hybridization and (4) difference in sex (male vs female). We found that the individual models were exceptionally effective in predicting the habitat use and occurrence of the particular individuals on whose data they were trained, but were generally highly divergent and not transferable among individuals. We conducted a reciprocal validation approach where we calculated the AUC for each individual model, predicting the occurrence patterns of the 13 other individuals. We then fit regression and nonparametric
splines to evaluate the impacts of geographical distance, ecological distance, hybridization distance and difference
in the sex of individuals in the ability of individual wildcat hybrid habitat models to predict the occurrences of other individuals. We found that, of the four factors assessed, ecological distance was supported as being inversely related to ability of a model from one individual to predict occurrence of another individual. The other
three factors were not strongly related to differences in reciprocal model predictive ability. This suggests that ecological differences where individual wildcat hybrids reside drive differences in their habitat selection, but that geographical distance, degree of genetic hybridization and difference in the sex of individuals are not consistently associated with differences in model prediction or reciprocal validation performance. These results highlight the effect of ecological limiting factors, and the importance of nonstationary limiting factors in determining the habitat they select, their expressed species-environment relationship and the description of their realized habitat niches.
Gathering knowledge on the breeding ecology of species in wild-living conditions is critical to set baselines from which to analyse population trends and design appropriate conservation actions. This is particularly challenging when studying elusive animals like carnivores, as breeding events are difficult to detect and monitor. Based on direct sightings of wildcats, we provide the first scientific information on the breeding ecology in wild conditions of European wildcats as well as hunting success and provisioning rates of female wildcats. Mean litter size at weaning was two with most observations occurring between July and September. Auxiliary dens were mostly located inside thick vegetation in the proximities of pastoral fields, although anthropogenic constructions were occasionally used. Two cases of different female wildcats rearing their respective litters closer than 500 m were recorded. Hunting success of breeding females (66%) was higher than that of non-breeding females (33%) and males (40%). Breeding females provided around 80% of the captured prey to their kittens. In conclusion, direct observations of wild living wildcats in the Cantabrian Mountains (NW Spain) allowed us to find that anthropogenic mosaic-structured landscapes combining open pastoral fields providing prey, and areas with thick vegetation such as shrub and forest patches providing shelter, encompass conditions required by the wildcats to successfully breed in human-dominated environments. View only version of the article available at the following link: https://rdcu.be/dj9Mg
