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Individual differences in emotion, cognitions, and task choice following achievement failure are found among four- to seven-year-olds. However, neither performance deterioration during failure nor generalization after failure—aspects of the helpless pattern in 10-year-olds—have been reliably demonstrated in this age group. In the present study, 78...
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... follow-up one-way ANOVA on number of correct matches on the generalization task with contingent self-worth group as the between-subjects variable showed that contin- gent self-worth was significantly related to number of items correct, F(2, 74) = 4.86, p = .010. As shown in Table 6, the mean number of items correct was similar for the two non-contingent groups and lower than the mean number of items correct for the contingent group. Post hoc least significant difference tests showed that the contingent self-worth group mean was higher than the non-contingent positive group mean, p = .026, ...
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Background:
Prior research has shown that parents help their children manage homework (i.e. environment, time, motivation and emotion management), especially in elementary school. However, researchers have not developed and validated a scale focused on those dimensions.
Method:
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Citations
... To assess children's emotion regulation, we adapted a laboratory stressor task previously used with younger children (Smiley et al., 2010) that involved assembling two-dimensional geometric puzzles modeled after the Block Design Task on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III-R; Wechsler, 1991). ...
This study examined parental depression and parental reflective functioning (PRF) as predictors of parental proficiency in relational savoring (RS), the association between RS proficiency and a marker of children's physiological self-regulation, respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), during a stressor, and indirect effects of parental depression and PRF on children's RSA via parents' RS. At Time 1 (T1), parents of 8- to 12-year-old children (N = 139) reported on their depressive symptoms and completed a parenting interview, coded for PRF. After 1.5 years (Time 2; T2), parents savored a positive relational memory that involved their children, which was coded for savoring proficiency. Children's RSA was measured during a stressful task (a series of impossible puzzles). Depressive symptoms (inversely) and PRF (positively) were associated with RS proficiency. Higher parental RS proficiency was associated with children's higher mean levels of RSA during the stressor. Indirect effects models supported that T2 RS proficiency mediated the negative association between parental T1 depressive symptoms and children's T2 RSA, and between T1 PRF and children's T2 RSA. We discuss these findings in terms of implications for parents' emotion regulation, children's emotion regulation, children's mental health, and intervention.
... At Time 2, children's resting RSA was reassessed. Next, they worked on a performance challenge task (PCT; Smiley et al. 2010;Borelli et al. 2015), a standardized performance challenge stressor task that has been used in several investigations of child development. The PCT lasts approximately 15 min and involves being asked to solve a series of puzzles modeled after the block design subsection of the Wechsler Intelligence Test for Children-III-Revised (Wechsler 1991a(Wechsler , 1991b. ...
Self-reported romantic attachment style is a well-studied phenomenon within the romantic relationship literature, yet surprisingly little work examines its link with parenting- or child-related outcomes. Understanding the associations (or lack thereof) between adults’ self-reported attachment anxiety and avoidance with relevant outcomes in children is crucial in revealing the extent to which romantic attachment style has empirical ties with the canonical work of Bowlby and Ainsworth. With the current study, we explored whether parents’ self-reported romantic attachment style predicts a key outcome of attachment security—children's emotion reactivity and regulation. Within an ethnically diverse sample of school-aged children, we tested associations between parents’ self-reported attachment styles and children’s emotion reactivity and regulation, measured with subjective, behavioral, and physiological metrics at two time points. Results show that higher parental attachment anxiety, and to a lesser extent avoidance, predict multiple indices (behavioral, physiological, and subjective) of emotion reactivity and regulation in children. Children of parents reporting higher attachment anxiety self-reported greater positive and negative emotion, as well as greater use of emotion regulation strategies. These children also demonstrated lower physiological emotion regulation at follow-up. Children of parents higher in avoidance reported less negative emotion after a hypothetical stressor and less use of emotion regulation strategies, but more negative emotion following a failure task at follow-up. Findings add to the body of evidence suggesting that self-reported attachment anxiety and avoidance are associated with theoretically-relevant child variables in attachment research.
... Results of the current study have a number of implications for the manner in which we study, understand and manage academic failure among students. Existing research has concentrated primarily on failure appraisals (Conroy et al., 2002) and on the impact that failure has on a variety of outcomes, including self-worth (Smiley, Coulson, Greene, & Bono, 2010), and grades (Cornell et al., 2006;D'Agostino & Bonner, 2009;Griffin & Heidorn, 1996). Although important, studies examining the link between failure and the impact of failure on self-worth provide little understanding of how initial failure may lead to an erosion of self-worth (Park et al., 2007;Smiley et al., 2010) or further difficulties (Cornell et al., 2006;D'Agostino & Bonner, 2009); and despite the growing number of studies documenting the impact of failure on individuals, relatively few studies have examined the manner in which individuals manage failure in the hours, days and weeks after a failure. ...
... Existing research has concentrated primarily on failure appraisals (Conroy et al., 2002) and on the impact that failure has on a variety of outcomes, including self-worth (Smiley, Coulson, Greene, & Bono, 2010), and grades (Cornell et al., 2006;D'Agostino & Bonner, 2009;Griffin & Heidorn, 1996). Although important, studies examining the link between failure and the impact of failure on self-worth provide little understanding of how initial failure may lead to an erosion of self-worth (Park et al., 2007;Smiley et al., 2010) or further difficulties (Cornell et al., 2006;D'Agostino & Bonner, 2009); and despite the growing number of studies documenting the impact of failure on individuals, relatively few studies have examined the manner in which individuals manage failure in the hours, days and weeks after a failure. Results of the current study suggest that what students do following a failure, irrespective of what they think about failure, will have a significant impact on a variety of outcomes, including their mood, attitudes towards failure, and possibly the degree to which they experience academic difficulties. ...
Little is known about the specific manner in which students cope with academic failure. To address this gap, a new measure of failure-coping behaviour was developed and validated. Two hundred and thirty-eight undergraduate students completed a new measure of failure-coping behaviour, in addition to measures of failure appraisal, depressed mood, academic engagement and difficulty, as well as adaptive and maladaptive attitudes towards failure. Principal components analyses, hierarchical regression and structural equation modelling were used to examine the structure, construct validity and incremental utility of the new scales. Results supported the distinctiveness of four types of failure-coping behaviours, namely task-related and socially focused behaviours that were either adaptive or maladaptive, and showed that failure-coping behaviours were related to a variety of mood, academic and attitudinal outcomes. Results also showed that effects of failure-coping behaviours were independent of any effects of failure appraisals. Results support the importance of understanding and targeting the failure-coping behaviours of students. Current efforts to address the stress and mental health difficulties experienced by students should include explicit training on how to deal with academic failure.
... The PCT was used to induce stress in children; previous studies have shown that it elicits both behavioral and physiological stress responses (Borelli et al., 2015;Smiley, Coulson, Greene, & Bono, 2009). In the PCT, children are asked to complete six 9-piece geometric puzzles adapted from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III-R. ...
Parental overcontrol (OC), the excessive regulation of a child's behavior, cognition, and emotion, is associated with the development of child anxiety. While studies have shown that genetic factors may increase sensitivity to stress, genetic vulnerability to parental OC has not been examined in anxiety etiology. A functional polymorphism in the mu opioid receptor OPRM1 (A118G, rs1799971) has been shown to impact stress reactivity. Using a community sample of children (N = 85, 9-12 years old), we examined the main and interactive effects of maternal OC and child OPRM1 genotype in predicting children's sympathetic nervous system reactivity during a performance stressor. Neither OC nor genotype predicted children's electrodermal activity (EDA); however, the interaction between OC and child genotype significantly predicted stress reactivity, as indexed by EDA, during the challenging task. Among children with the minor G-allele, higher maternal OC was associated with higher reactivity. In A homozygotes, maternal OC was not associated with EDA, suggesting a diathesis-stress pattern of gene x environment interaction. We discuss implications for anxiety etiology and intervention.
... We presented children with four unsolvable puzzles and measured change in their verbalization of puzzle-solving strategies across the series, strategies that they were taught and practiced before the start of the task. Similar talk-aloud procedures have been used in prior research as a means of non-intrusively measuring ongoing cognitive processes (Berhenke et al. 2011;Diener and Dweck 1978;Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1995;Smiley and Dweck 1994;Smiley et al. 2010). On the last puzzle in the series, we coded facial expression of emotion. ...
... We adapted a puzzle-solving task used with younger children in Smiley et al. (2010) by increasing the difficulty level of the puzzles, and programming it for presentation on a 20.5-inch computer. Children were asked to complete a series of 9-piece geometric puzzles, modeled after the Block Design task in the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III (WISC-III; Wechsler 1991). ...
... Prior to working on the puzzle series, children learned six puzzle-solving strategies-''corners'' (fill the corners first); ''rows'' (fill a row); ''up and down'' (fill a column); ''match'' (match a piece to the target picture before placing); ''sort'' (separate solid color pieces from diagonal pieces); and ''solids'' (placing the solid pieces first)which they could use to solve the puzzles (Smiley et al. 2010). Strategies were taught as follows: First, seated in an adjacent room equipped with an audio connection to the testing room, the experimenter named and then demonstrated each strategy by using a remotely controlled mouse to move tiles into the puzzle frame on the children's computer display. ...
Negative emotion is typically associated with avoidance behavior; however, recent advances in the adult literature show that unlike some emotions (sadness, shame), anger predicts both approach and avoidance. Here we propose that socialization to suppress anger will play a role in whether children who express anger respond to a performance challenge with approach or avoidance. Children (N = 79; Mage = 11.4 years) reported perceptions of parental use of positive conditional regard (PCR) to socialize anger suppression and worked on four unsolvable puzzles. We measured change in verbalized puzzle-solving strategies during failure, and coded emotion expression on the final puzzle. We examined whether negative emotion type (shame/sadness vs. anger) and PCR for anger predicted change in strategy use, and whether the association between level of PCR for anger and approach-avoidance (change in strategy use) depended on type of negative emotion expressed. Neither emotion expression nor level of PCR anger predicted strategy use; however, type of negative emotion moderated the association between PCR anger and change in strategy use, controlling for NCR anger. For children who displayed anger, low PCR was associated with increased strategy use, and high PCR was associated with decreased strategy use. We discuss the role of emotion socialization in shaping approach and avoidance motivation.
... Following parent-child dyads across a 1.5 year period, here we evaluate two hypotheses regarding the prospective association between parent anxiety and children's stress reactivity in the recovery period following a performance challenge. We utilize a task that was initially developed for a study of individual differences in response to failure [65]. This task presents a series of impossible puzzles (failure task), followed by two recovery tasks-a puzzle that is identical in form to the insolvable puzzles but is solvable (difficult recovery task), and a simple visuo-spatial matching task on which success is almost guaranteed (simple recovery task). ...
... This task presents a series of impossible puzzles (failure task), followed by two recovery tasks-a puzzle that is identical in form to the insolvable puzzles but is solvable (difficult recovery task), and a simple visuo-spatial matching task on which success is almost guaranteed (simple recovery task). In the earlier study [65], children who were concerned about performing well performed worse during the failure task and did not recover behaviorally during the difficult recovery task, compared to children who did not have such concerns. Because concerns about performing well are likely related to anxiety, we use Smiley et al.'s [65] previous findings as a basis for generating hypotheses in the current study. ...
... In the earlier study [65], children who were concerned about performing well performed worse during the failure task and did not recover behaviorally during the difficult recovery task, compared to children who did not have such concerns. Because concerns about performing well are likely related to anxiety, we use Smiley et al.'s [65] previous findings as a basis for generating hypotheses in the current study. ...
Parental anxiety confers risk for the development of an anxiety disorder in children, and this risk may be transmitted through children's stress reactivity. Further, some children may be more vulnerable to reactivity in the presence of parent factors such as anxiety. In this study, we examined whether parents' anxiety symptoms prospectively predict school-aged children's physiological reactivity following stress, assessed through their electrodermal activity (galvanic skin response) during recovery from a performance challenge task, and whether this varies as a function of children's temperamental fearfulness. Parents and their children (N = 68) reported on their anxiety symptoms at Time 1 of data collection, and parents characterized the extent to which their children had fearful temperaments. At Time 2 children completed the performance challenge and two recovery tasks. Greater parental anxiety symptom severity at Time 1 predicted children's higher electrodermal response during both recovery tasks following the failure task. Further, these effects are specific to children with medium and high fearful temperament, whereas for children low in fearfulness, the association between parent anxiety and child reactivity is not significant. Findings provide additional evidence for the diathesis-stress hypothesis and are discussed in terms of their contribution to the literature on developmental psychopathology.
... Self-report instruments on emotions during the first years of elementary school also focused primarily on positive versus negative affective states. In these studies pictures or sketches of faces have been used as anchors to ensure children's understanding of the scales (e.g., Helmke, 1993;Smiley, Coulson, Greene, & Bono, 2010;Smiley & Dweck, 1994). The scales of these instruments either ranged from unhappy (sad face) to happy (smiling face; e.g., Helmke, 1993), or children had to choose between the sad or happy face and afterwards specify the intensity of the reported emotion (e.g., Smiley et al., 2010;Smiley & Dweck, 1994). ...
... In these studies pictures or sketches of faces have been used as anchors to ensure children's understanding of the scales (e.g., Helmke, 1993;Smiley, Coulson, Greene, & Bono, 2010;Smiley & Dweck, 1994). The scales of these instruments either ranged from unhappy (sad face) to happy (smiling face; e.g., Helmke, 1993), or children had to choose between the sad or happy face and afterwards specify the intensity of the reported emotion (e.g., Smiley et al., 2010;Smiley & Dweck, 1994). ...
Emotions are important determinants of motivation, behavior, and learning at all educational levels. Surprisingly, apart from studies on test anxiety, research on achievement emotions has been largely lacking until recently.Furthermore, there are only a few studies on students' achievement emotions in the elementary school years. The present chapter draws attention to the importance of achievement emotions and reviews findings on important antecedents and consequences of achievement emotions, particularly among elementary school students. Findings on gender differences concerning emotions and their impact on learning and achievement will specifically be attended to.
This research investigated the influence of parental practices on helpless behaviors of struggling readers during homework tasks. Parents (N = 36) of elementary students reported on their children's helpless behaviors, such as task avoidance and negative affect, during homework assignments, and on the nature and frequency of their support. Distinctions were made between parental support considered to be strategic, compensatory, or intrusive. Additional variables that influence achievement behaviors were assessed, including children's language skills, academic abilities, and behavior regulation. Parent support considered intrusive, such as unsolicited interruptions and corrections, along with children's behavior regulation abilities, accounted for the greatest variation in struggling readers' helpless behaviors.
Young children differ in their responses to failure, displaying mastery or helpless behavior patterns. We examine the moderating role of child temperament on the association between parent warmth/negativity and children's helpless responses to failure. Regarding temperament, we focus on tendencies to experience interest and sadness because they entail task engagement and withdrawal, respectively. We measured mother (n5150) expressions of positive and negative emotion during a teaching task, assessed temperament using LabTAB-Preschool episodes, and coded helplessness during an impossible puzzle task. Maternal negative emotion during teaching was positively associated with helplessness, but only for children low in interest. Maternal warmth was negatively associated with helplessness, but only for children high in sadness; sadness did not moderate the relation between maternal negativity and helplessness. Findings provide support for parenting by temperament goodness-of-fit models and for a discrete emotions approach to temperament.
