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Mean B" scores on own-and other-race faces for Caucasian (n = 29) and First Nations (n = 24) groups. Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals. Positive scores indicate a more conservative response bias, negative scores indicate a more liberal response bias.
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Cette étude vise à savoir si les recherches réalisées sur de l'effet croisé de race auprès de témoins visuels composés de caucasiens et de noirs peuvent être généralisées auprès d'autres clientèles composées de caucasiens et de personnes issues des premières nations, lors d'une séance d'identification. La présente étude a utilisé une nouvelle appro...
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... The ORE has real-world consequences in social and legal settings. In the US and Canada, non-White individuals are more likely to be wrongly accused due to misidentification (Jackiw et al., 2008). Despite extensive research and multiple theories, understanding of the ORE remains fragmented, with many questions about its perceptual, cognitive, social, and neurological origins. ...
Psychology and behavioral sciences lack diversity in their participant samples. In visual perception, more specifically, common practice assumes that the processes studied are fundamental and universal. In contrast, cultural psychology has accumulated evidence of cultural variability in visual perception. In face processing, for instance, this cultural variability may sabotage intercultural relations. Policies aim to increase diversity in research, supporting cultural psychology, and to increase awareness among professional workforces, as well as the general population, concerning how cultural variability may influence their interpretation of another's behavior.
... The results often found evidence for the ORB, but especially so for White participants trying to recognise Black faces (Cross et al. 1971;Malpass and Kravitz 1969). Since the twenty-first century research exploring the ORB has employed a variety of different populations around the world and demonstrated through a number of different paradigms, such as face recognition (Hayward et al. 2017;Meissner et al. 2005;Wan et al. 2015), face matching tasks (Havard 2021;Kokje et al. 2018;Meissner et al. 2013), eyewitness paradigms (Dodson & Dobolyi 2016;Havard et al. 2017;Jackiw et al. 2008;Marcon et al. 2008), and metaanalyses (Meissner and Brigham 2001;Singh et al. 2021). Most studies have found that people are more likely to correctly identify a previously seen face if it belongs to the same race as them and more likely to make a false positive response (falsely recognise a face) if it belongs to someone who is from a different race. ...
... The results often found evidence for the ORB, but especially so for White participants trying to recognise Black faces (Cross et al. 1971;Malpass and Kravitz 1969). Since the twenty-first century research exploring the ORB has employed a variety of different populations around the world and demonstrated through a number of different paradigms, such as face recognition (Hayward et al. 2017;Meissner et al. 2005;Wan et al. 2015), face matching tasks (Havard 2021;Kokje et al. 2018;Meissner et al. 2013), eyewitness paradigms (Dodson & Dobolyi 2016;Havard et al. 2017;Jackiw et al. 2008;Marcon et al. 2008), and metaanalyses (Meissner and Brigham 2001;Singh et al. 2021). Most studies have found that people are more likely to correctly identify a previously seen face if it belongs to the same race as them and more likely to make a false positive response (falsely recognise a face) if it belongs to someone who is from a different race. ...
... In the current study there were more miss responses for own race (White) faces as compared to other race (Black) faces and mean arrays appeared to increase miss responses for other race faces, but not for own race faces. There were significantly more false positive responses for other race faces as compared to own race faces, replicating the findings that people are more likely to identify an innocent person if they are from another race from a TA lineup (Havard et al. 2017(Havard et al. , 2019Jackiw et al. 2008;Wylie et al. 2015). ...
... The results often found evidence for the ORB, but especially so for White participants trying to recognise Black faces (Cross et al. 1971;Malpass and Kravitz 1969). Since the twenty-first century research exploring the ORB has employed a variety of different populations around the world and demonstrated through a number of different paradigms, such as face recognition (Hayward et al. 2017;Meissner et al. 2005;Wan et al. 2015), face matching tasks (Havard 2021;Kokje et al. 2018;Meissner et al. 2013), eyewitness paradigms (Dodson & Dobolyi 2016;Havard et al. 2017;Jackiw et al. 2008;Marcon et al. 2008), and metaanalyses (Meissner and Brigham 2001;Singh et al. 2021). Most studies have found that people are more likely to correctly identify a previously seen face if it belongs to the same race as them and more likely to make a false positive response (falsely recognise a face) if it belongs to someone who is from a different race. ...
... The results often found evidence for the ORB, but especially so for White participants trying to recognise Black faces (Cross et al. 1971;Malpass and Kravitz 1969). Since the twenty-first century research exploring the ORB has employed a variety of different populations around the world and demonstrated through a number of different paradigms, such as face recognition (Hayward et al. 2017;Meissner et al. 2005;Wan et al. 2015), face matching tasks (Havard 2021;Kokje et al. 2018;Meissner et al. 2013), eyewitness paradigms (Dodson & Dobolyi 2016;Havard et al. 2017;Jackiw et al. 2008;Marcon et al. 2008), and metaanalyses (Meissner and Brigham 2001;Singh et al. 2021). Most studies have found that people are more likely to correctly identify a previously seen face if it belongs to the same race as them and more likely to make a false positive response (falsely recognise a face) if it belongs to someone who is from a different race. ...
... In the current study there were more miss responses for own race (White) faces as compared to other race (Black) faces and mean arrays appeared to increase miss responses for other race faces, but not for own race faces. There were significantly more false positive responses for other race faces as compared to own race faces, replicating the findings that people are more likely to identify an innocent person if they are from another race from a TA lineup (Havard et al. 2017(Havard et al. , 2019Jackiw et al. 2008;Wylie et al. 2015). ...
In police photo lineups, there can sometimes be small variations in shades and hues of the background images due to the faces being filmed under different lighting and cameras. Own race bias refers to a situation where people are better at remembering the faces of those who are the same race as them and find it more difficult to recognise faces from a different race. In this paper, we investigated the influence of small colour variations in backgrounds for the recognition of Black and White faces. Across 3 experiments, we found when small changes were introduced into the backgrounds of the images this increased false identifications for previously unseen Black faces, but not White faces. This finding suggests that the police need to ensure that the backgrounds of the photo lineups they use are all uniform to reduce mistaken identifications of innocent suspects.
... However, our repeated-measures design came with a cost, as it required us to sacrifice the ecological validity associated with a standard eyewitness paradigm, in which a single data point is collected per participant. Although similar examples of "middle road approaches" (Lane & Meissner, 2008) have been successfully implemented and advocated for by various psychology and law researchers (e.g., see Evans et al., 2009;Haw et al., 2007;Jackiw et al., 2008;Meissner et al., 2005;Weber & Brewer, 2003), our methodology does limit our ability to generalize our findings to real-world eyewitnesses. We therefore view the contribution of the current study as complementary to existing studies on the topic, providing convergent evidence that confidence assessment method has little effect on the confidence-accuracy relationship, whether assessed using a standard eyewitness paradigm (Mansour, 2020;Smalarz et al., 2021), or using a basic face recognition paradigm (current study). ...
Historically, best practice recommendations suggested obtaining eyewitnesses’ lineup identification confidence reports in their own words. More recently, best practice recommendations call for the collection of confidence reports using scales containing either words or numbers. Clearly, historical and contemporary recommendations are inconsistent. This article provides a review of the existing relevant scientific literature and presents new data to empirically assess the effect of confidence assessment method on the confidence-accuracy relationship. Although small, the extant literature has consistently failed to show any significant difference in the confidence-accuracy relationship as a function of confidence assessment method: Verbal confidence reports are as diagnostic of identification accuracy as numeric confidence reports. We present data from a basic repeated face recognition paradigm in which participants (n = 634) each attempted 16 separate lineup identifications and were randomly assigned to indicate their confidence using either a numeric scale, a verbal scale, or in their own words. Consistent with our review of the scientific literature, both calibration and confidence-accuracy characteristic analyses demonstrated that (a) confidence is predictive of accuracy, including when witness confidence is obtained via open-ended responding, and (b) the confidence-accuracy relationship is not dependent on the method used to obtain confidence estimates. Thus, results support using any of the recommended methods (i.e., scales containing either words or numbers or a verbatim account in the witness’s own words) for collecting confidence statements. However, consideration of other criteria (e.g., subjectivity associated with the interpretation of verbal confidence reports) may support recent calls for scale-based confidence collection.
... While most ORB research has been conducted with Black and White participants and faces, the effect is ubiquitous: it has been found comparing different races and groups around the world (e.g., O'Toole et al., 1994;Sporer et al., 2007). Considering eyewitness identifications, archival studies indicate that about half of witness identifications are other-race (e.g., Behrman & Davey, 2001;Flowe et al., 2018), and experimental studies document the ubiquity of the ORB in photo lineup tasks (e.g., Jackiw et al., 2008;Platz & Hosch, 1988). A number of jurisdictions now recommend that trial judges warn juries about the effect of the ORB on identification inaccuracy (e.g., People v. Boone, 2017). ...
... Studies suggest that the ORB is an encoding-based phenomenon, with multiple sociocognitive mechanisms likely contributing to people having a decreased ability to encode other-race faces (e.g., Meissner & Brigham, 2001;Sporer, 2001). Yet, nearly all of the experiments conducted to date have presented participants with static frontal pose faces at study and test (see Meissner & Brigham, 2001, for a meta-analysis, but also see Evans et al., 2009;Jackiw et al., 2008). Consequently, our ability to understand the role of information at retrieval in making other-race identifications was limited. ...
Eyewitness identifications play a key role in the justice system, but eyewitnesses can make errors, often with profound consequences. We used findings from basic science and innovative technologies to develop and test whether a novel interactive lineup procedure, wherein witnesses can rotate and dynamically view the lineup faces from different angles, improves witness discrimination accuracy compared with a widely used procedure in laboratories and police forces around the world—the static frontal-pose photo lineup. No novel procedure has previously been shown to improve witness discrimination accuracy. In Experiment 1, participants (N = 220) identified culprits from sequentially presented interactive lineups or static frontal-pose photo lineups. In Experiment 2, participants (N = 8,507) identified culprits from interactive lineups that were either presented sequentially, simultaneously wherein the faces could be moved independently, or simultaneously wherein the faces moved jointly into the same angle. Sequential interactive lineups enhanced witness discrimination accuracy compared with static photo lineups, and simultaneous interactive lineups enhanced witness discrimination accuracy compared with sequential interactive lineups. These finding were true both when participants viewed suspects who were of the same or different ethnicity/race as themselves. Our findings exemplify how basic science can be used to address the important applied policy issue on how best to conduct a police lineup and reduce eyewitness errors.
... A fairly robust effect in the literature is the finding that people are generally better at recognizing faces from their own race, when compared with other races (Brigham & Malpass, 1985;Hancock & Rhodes, 2008;Jackiw et al., 2008;Meissner & Brigham, 2001;. This bias has been referred to as the other-race effect (ORE), own-race bias (ORB), own-group bias (OGB), and cross-race effect (CRE). ...
... This bias has been referred to as the other-race effect (ORE), own-race bias (ORB), own-group bias (OGB), and cross-race effect (CRE). The own-race bias (the term we will use here) appears to be greater in Caucasian Europeans when compared with other racial groups (Hancock & Rhodes, 2008;Jackiw et al., 2008;. The ORB has been confirmed by meta-analyses of face recognition studies that have revealed that participants are more likely to correctly recognize previously seen own-race faces, and more likely to falsely recognize otherrace faces that have not been previously seen (Bothwell et al., 1989;Meissner & Brigham, 2001). ...
... For overall performance across match and mismatch trials, there was an ORB for both the U.K. and Chinese participants for matching faces when the external features had been removed to show only the internal features, and an ORB for whole faces, but only for the U.K. participants. This ORB replicates previous research that has found people are more accurate with own-race faces compared to faces from another race (Brigham & Malpass, 1985;Hancock & Rhodes, 2008;Jackiw et al., 2008;Meissner & Brigham, 2001;Wong et al., 2020). Furthermore, finding an ORB replicates previous face matching studies, suggesting that the phenomena occur during the encoding stage of face perception (Kokje et al., 2018;Megreya, White, et al., 2011;Walker & Tanaka, 2003). ...
Research has shown that we are better at discriminating between faces that are our own race, and much less accurate with faces of another race. When the external features of faces were removed, this reduced the accuracy for recognizing other-races faces, more than own-race faces, suggesting that the external features (hair, face shape) are especially important for the recognition of other-race faces. The aim of the current study was to determine whether external features were more useful in matching other-race faces, and whether this was the case for Western and Eastern viewers. The current study employed a face matching task with Caucasian (U.K.) and Asian (Chinese) participants and found that responses were more accurate for own-race faces, and for whole faces when compared with faces where the internal or external features had been removed. Removing the external features of other-race faces increased the own-race bias for Chinese and U.K. participants, demonstrating the importance of viewing whole faces, including the external features when matching other-race faces.
... The impact of race on identification accuracy has been reported in non-typically developing populations, including in individuals with schizophrenia [50] and autism spectrum disorder [51,52]. Notably, the other-race effect has also been found using multiple experimental paradigms, including face identity matching tasks [53], eyewitness lineups [54,55], old/new or yes/no memory conditions [56,40], name learning [57], and lineup constructor tasks [58]. Although stimuli and experimental parameters differ considerably across these studies, the consistent impact of race on face recognition/identification accuracy makes the other-race effect of pivotal interest to scientists. ...
Face recognition by machines has improved markedly over the last decade. Machines now perform some face recognition tasks at the level of untrained humans and forensic face identification experts. In this chapter, first we review recent work on human and machine performance on face recognition tasks. Second, we consider the benefits of statistically fusing human and machine responses to improve performance. Third, we review strategic differences in how humans with various levels of expertise approach face identification tasks. We conclude by considering the challenging problem of human and machine performance on recognition of faces of different races. Understanding how humans and machines perform these tasks can lead to more effective and accurate face recognition in applied settings.
... By contrast, the forced-choice task presents multiple faces during the recognition test and asks participants to decide whether one of the presented faces is the face they recognize. In social-cognitive style laboratory studies, the forced-choice task may present anywhere from two (e.g., De Heering et al., 2010) to six faces during a trial of the recognition test (e.g., Jackiw et al., 2008). In eyewitness studies, participants often choose from a much larger set of faces, perhaps 12 or more (Brigham et al., 1982). ...
Contact with racial outgroups is thought to reduce the cross-race recognition deficit (CRD), the tendency for people to recognize same-race (i.e., ingroup) faces more accurately than cross-race (i.e., outgroup) faces. In 2001, Meissner and Brigham conducted a meta-analysis in which they examined this question and found a meta-analytic effect of r = −.13. We conduct a new meta-analysis based on 20 years of additional data to update the estimate of this relationship and examine theoretical and methodological moderators of the effect. We find a meta-analytic effect of r = −.15. In line with theoretical predictions, we find some evidence that the magnitude of this relationship is stronger when contact occurs during childhood rather than adulthood. We find no evidence that the relationship differs for measures of holistic/configural processing compared with normal processing. Finally, we find that the magnitude of the relationship depends on the operationalization of contact and that it is strongest when contact is manipulated. We consider recommendations for further research on this topic.
... This cross-race effect is highly robust, having been replicated across old/new recognition (DeLozier & Rhodes, 2015;Meissner, Brigham, & Butz, 2005;Wright, Boyd, & Tredoux, 2003) and lineup paradigms (Dodson & Dobolyi, 2016;Jackiw, Arbuthnott, Pfeifer, Marcon, & Meissner, 2008;Platz & Hosch, 1988;Vredeveldt et al., 2015 Exp 1). Therefore, other-race identifications might prompt a social inhibition effect whereby other-race identifications are even less accurate in the presence of an evaluative lineup administrator. ...
... However, in the real Notably, we did not use an eyewitness paradigm in which participants view an event at encoding. That being said, our results are consistent with other cross-race effect lineup studies that used photos at encoding (Dodson & Dobolyi, 2016;Jackiw et al., 2008). In our study, we were able to replicate the CRE: same-race identifications produced more hits and fewer false alarms, whereas other-race identifications produced fewer hits and more false alarms (i.e., a mirror effect). ...
Best practice guidelines recommend that eyewitness lineup administrators be blind to a suspect's identity, but no research has investigated whether the mere presence of a lineup administrator impacts eyewitness identification decisions. Informed by social facilitation theory, we predicted that the presence of an audience would differentially impact identification accuracy for same‐ and other‐race identifications. Participants (N = 191) viewed same‐ and other‐race lineups either with an audience or alone. Although the presence of an audience did not directly impact identification accuracy, significant indirect effects indicated that the audience provoked evaluation apprehension which hindered other‐race identification accuracy and improved same‐race identification accuracy. We suggest that using double‐blind lineup procedures may not sufficiently protect eyewitness identification accuracy when making other‐race lineup decisions in the presence of others.
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... Humans tend to be better at perceiving, memorizing and identifying others from an individual's own race than members of other races (Allport, 1954;Jackiw, Arbuthnott, Pfeifer, Marcon & Meissner, 2008;Susa et al., 2010). From a very early age, as early as five, children form implicit attitudes about social groups and exhibit a selfpreference for same-race children over other-race children (Baron & Banaji, 2006;Dunham, Baron, & Banaji, 2008;Tham, Bremner, & Hay, 2017). ...
Previous research on the shooter bias effect has focused on Black versus White male stimuli, with participants mistakenly shooting unarmed Black stimuli more often than White stimuli. If shooter bias is related to threat perception, a pattern of bias should be present when using images of other threat-related ethnic minorities. Forty participants completed a computerized shooter task adapted from previous research in which participants made rapid repeated decisions to shoot or not shoot. Repeated measures ANOVA conducted on mean response times and error rates found participants significantly shot unarmed Black stimuli more quickly, more frequently, and at higher percentages compared to Hispanic/Latino and White stimuli. Signal detection analyses found that participants were significantly more accurate at discriminating weapons when primed with a Hispanic/Latino stimulus than other ethnic stimuli. Participants adopted the expected generous criterion for Black stimuli and cautious criterion for White stimuli when deciding to shoot.
