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Endurance runners are often advised to use 90 strides min−1, but how optimal is this stride frequency and why? Endurance runners are also often advised to maintain short strides and avoid landing with the feet too far in front of their hips or knees (colloquially termed ‘overstriding’), but how do different kinematic strategies for varying stride l...
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Context 1
... of the rearfoot strikers and one midfoot striker switched to forefoot strikes when running at 90 and 95 strides min −1 ; one of the forefoot strikers used rearfoot strikes at 75 strides min −1 . Table 2 summarizes mean values for key kinematic and kinetic variables measured at each prescribed SF. ...
Citations
... The algorithm's sensitivity to speed and stride frequency in estimating the GRF peaks is shown using the LMM, where a positive relation was shown with speed and a negative relation with increasing stride frequency, in line with the literature. 35,36 Model 3, where GRF peak was estimated as an intercept with effect of speed and stride frequency, all with random (participant-specific) effects, shows an R 2 of .90 (Table 3). ...
To increase understanding in development of running injuries, the biomechanical load over time should be studied. Ground reaction force (GRF) is an important parameter for biomechanical analyses and is typically measured in a controlled lab environment. GRF can be estimated outdoors, however, the repeatability of this estimation is unknown. Repeatability is a crucial aspect if a measurement is repeated over prolonged periods of time. This study investigates the repeatability of a GRF estimation algorithm using inertial measurement units during outdoor running. Twelve well-trained participants completed 3 running sessions on different days, on an athletics track, instrumented with inertial measurement units on the lower legs and pelvis. Vertical accelerations were used to estimate the GRF. The goal was to assess the algorithm’s repeatability across 3 sessions in a real-world setting, aiming to bridge the gap between laboratory and outdoor measurements. Results showed a good level of repeatability, with an intraclass correlation coefficient (2, k) of .86 for peak GRF, root mean square error of .08 times body weight (3.5%) and Pearson correlation coefficients exceeding .99 between the days. This is the first study looking into the day-to-day repeatability of the estimation of GRF, showing the potential to use this algorithm daily.
... Numerous laboratory studies have observed changes in kinetic, kinematic, and spatiotemporal variables indicating that adoption of a shorter stride length would minimize vulnerability to MSKI. 16,23,42 However, the meta-analysis by Brindle et al 4 concluded that stride length was not consistently different between runners with or without a history of overuse injury. The systematic review included a prospective cohort study of .200 ...
... 5 Low aerobic fitness has been established in the literature as a significant risk factor for overuse injury. 27 Also, in the laboratory study by Lieberman et al, 23 investigating the effect of variable cadences on running economy, kinematics, and kinetics, the authors highlighted the importance of looking specifically at the distance of the foot from the hip and the knee. They reported that participants who extended their stride length through hip flexion rather than knee extension at the end of the swing phase had a nearly vertical tibia, minimizing rates and magnitudes of impact peak. ...
... They reported that participants who extended their stride length through hip flexion rather than knee extension at the end of the swing phase had a nearly vertical tibia, minimizing rates and magnitudes of impact peak. 23 This observation indicates that we should consider more than stride length alone as it relates to injury risk and rather break down distance of foot from the knee and the hip as well. Also, we acknowledge that anthropometry, particularly participant height, is a component that limits one's ability to modify stride length despite its influence on risk of MSKI. ...
Background
Running-related overuse injuries are common among recreational runners; however, there is currently little prospective research investigating the role of running characteristics on overuse injury development.
Purpose
To investigate the relationship between running characteristics and lower extremity musculoskeletal injury (MSKI).
Study Design
Cohort study; Level of evidence, 2.
Methods
The study included 827 incoming cadets of the class of 2020 at the United States Military Academy. Before cadet basic training, running spatiotemporal parameters (stride length, ground contact time, and cadence) were recorded for each participant, and foot-strike pattern was analyzed. Demographic data were recorded and analyzed as potential covariates. Lower extremity MSKIs sustained over the 9 weeks of cadet basic training were documented. Kaplan-Meier survival curves were estimated, with time to incident lower extremity MSKI as the primary outcome, by level of the independent predictor variables. Risk factors or potential covariates were carried forward into multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression models.
Results
Approximately 18.1% of participants incurred a lower extremity MSKI resulting in ≥3 days of activity limitation during cadet basic training. Univariate analysis indicated that participants with the shortest stride length (<133.0 cm) were 39% more likely to incur any lower extremity MSKI and 45% more likely to incur an overuse MSKI than those with the longest stride length (>158.5 cm), and that participants with the longest ground contact time (>0.42 seconds) were twice as likely to incur any MSKI than those with the shortest contact time (<0.28 seconds). After adjusting for sex, weekly distance running 3 months before cadet basic training, and history of injury, multivariate regression analysis indicated that participants with the longest contact times were significantly more likely to incur overuse lower extremity MSKI than those with the shortest contact times (hazard ratio, 2.15; 95% CI, 1.06-4.37). There was no significant difference in risk of MSKI associated with foot-strike pattern or cadence.
Conclusion
Study participants running with the longest ground contact times were 2.15 times more likely to incur an overuse lower extremity MSKI during cadet basic training than those with the shortest contact times. Also, study participants with the shortest stride length were 45% more likely to incur an overuse MSKI than those with the longest stride length.
... It has demonstrated significant potential in reducing hamstring injuries rates [12,13] that frequently occur during high-speed efforts due to repetitive intense eccentric loading [3,14,15]. Modifying certain key motor patterns during sprint cycle-such as avoiding overstriding [16], excessive forward trunk lean [17], and anterior pelvic tilt [18] while improving lumbo-pelvic control [12]-seems to be essential not only for achieving good running technique and enhancing performance [9][10][11] but also for playing a vital role in hamstring injury prevention [12,13]. ...
... Overstriding, characterized by the foot landing too far ahead of the body's center of mass, is associated with increased injury risk, particularly hamstring injuries. This biomechanical deviation disrupts natural running mechanics, resulting in elevated braking forces and excessive strain on the lower limbs during the terminal swing phase [16,19]. Optimizing stride length to position the foot closer to the body's center of mass at the moment of touchdown has been shown to improve running efficiency and reduce the risk of eccentric overload on the hamstrings. ...
... Optimizing stride length to position the foot closer to the body's center of mass at the moment of touchdown has been shown to improve running efficiency and reduce the risk of eccentric overload on the hamstrings. Correcting overstriding not only enhances running mechanics but also decreases muscle strain, thereby mitigating the likelihood of hamstring injuries [16,20,21]. In addition, excessive forward trunk lean during sprinting increases the eccentric loading and elongation of the hamstrings, particularly during the late stance phase, elevating the risk of hamstring injuries [17,21]. ...
(1) Background: Among the myriad of injuries affecting football players, hamstring strains have emerged as a persistent and debilitating concern, underscoring the need for novel approaches to reduce strain rates. The current study aims to analyze the impact of improved running technique on reducing hamstring injuries in football players. (2) Methods: Twenty-two male < 19 years old footballers were randomly assigned to an intervention and a control groups (n = 14 vs. 8), the former performing a running technique program of six weeks. Three-dimensional kinematics, using a markerless motion capture system, assessed linear and angular variables during touchdown and toe-off instants to evaluate pre- and post-intervention. Independent and repeated measure t-tests and effect size calculations were employed. (3) Results: A decrease in hip flexion and thorax external rotation during the touchdown (−2.39° and −2.02°, p ≤ 0.05) and a decrease in pelvic external rotation and an increase in stride length (−3.22° and 0.06 m, p ≤ 0.05) during toe-off for the players that engaged in the running technique development was observed. (4) Conclusions: These findings emphasize the significant impact of improved running technique and sprint mechanics, suggesting a potential decrease in the risk of hamstring injuries during high-speed running in football players.
... Focusing on the relationship between the running style and the experienced load, the two mass model of Clark and colleagues (2017) predominantly relates the magnitude of loads associated with spring-mass dynamics to the DF, whereas impact loading is more closely related to SF. Indeed, Bonnaerens and colleagues (2021) found that 75.5% of the variance in maximal vertical ground reaction force (FzMax) and 43.0% of the variance in peak braking force (PBF) could be explained by the DF, whereas changes in load measures such as vertical and antero-posterior ground reaction forces at the initial stance and peak tibial impact accelerations tend to be more associated with changes in SF (Clarke et al., 1985;Crowell and Davis, 2011;Lieberman et al., 2015). As previous research focused on the relationship between the running style and loading magnitude based on external ground reaction forces, it is unknown how a running style relates to more detailed internal load measures derived from inverse dynamics such as joint moments and joint reaction forces. ...
Running style is temporally defined by a duty factor and stride frequency and believed to be related to the loading experienced during ever step. However, the exact relationship between both temporal variables and loading magnitude is still unknown. We aimed to identify the relationship between a duty factor and stride frequency with external load measures, joint reaction forces and joint moments. Thirty-one healthy female recreational runners ran across a 25-m runway at a speed of 2.30 ± 0.05 m·s⁻¹. Ground reaction forces and motion capture data were used to determine the maximal vertical ground reaction force, the vertical instantaneous loading rate, peak braking force, peak joint extension moments and peak joint reaction forces at the knee and the ankle. The habitual duty factor and stride frequency of runners did not correlate with each other. The duty factor was found to be a significant predictor of maximal vertical ground reaction force (R² = 0.585), peak braking force (R² = 0.153), peak knee extension moment (R² = 0.149), ankle plantar flexion moment (R² = 0.225) and peak joint reaction forces at the knee (R² = 0.591) and the ankle (R² = 0.592), but not of the vertical instantaneous loading rate. Stride frequency had no significant predictive value. In conclusion, the maximal loading and potential injury risk of female recreational runners running with high duty factors are lower compared to those of peers running with lower duty factors.
... Estos cambios positivos parecen estar asociados a menores lesiones relacionadas con la carrera (Cheung & Davis, 2011;Noehren et al., 2011). En esta sección, se optó por una manipulación absoluta de la FZ como en estudios previos (Lieberman et al., 2015;Quinn et al., 2019;van Oeveren et al., 2017), pero realizando un análisis traslacional, forzando al corredor a modificar su FZP con FZs observadas en corredores de este estudio durante carreras en exterior. Esta manipulación absoluta (±10 zancadas•min -1 ) correspondió a un promedio del 12% de cambio relativo. ...
This study aimed i) to study the agreement between a sports watch (Suunto Ambit2) with a photoelectric device (Optogait) as a reference instrument on measuring stride frequencies (SF) and stride lengths (SL); ii) to observe the stride patterns during outdoor running; and iii) to analyse the effect of SF manipulations on running economy monitored by a gas analyser and based on the observational analysis. One hundred and sixty recreational runners were analysed at speeds between 8-14 km·h-1. The Suunto Ambit2 agreed with the reference system [r=0.99 (0.99-1.00); Typical Error of the Estimate=0.58 strides•min-1 and 0.02m]. Runners tended to maintain SF constant [Coefficient of Variation (CV)=2.4%]) during variations in speed (CV=6.8%) while relied on SL (CV=6.5%) adjustments during outdoor running. Finally, runners seemed to maintain a low running cost with their auto-selected SF (average=81.3 strides•min-1), but an increase of up to 12% could be benefit when speed changes, without running cost detriment.
... Since the primary duty of a lower-limb exoskeleton is to transmit the torque and speed to the user [4], precise torque and speed delivery is a significant consideration in lower-limb exoskeleton development for patients with locomotion disorders. Daniel's research shows the importance of accurate auxiliary speed and torque for the wearer because they affect the execution efficiency of the user's daily living activities and the metabolic cost of the user's walking [5]. ...
... Since the VTSEA system has fast mechanical dynamics (4) and slow mechanical dynamics (5), thus displaying the two-timescale behavior [17]. Hence, the SPT is able to be used to design controllers for two separate subsystems by regarding the fast dynamics (4) as perturbations of the slow dynamics (5). ...
... Prior work has shown that limb posture at initial contact, which includes measuring overstriding, may influence subsequent loading patterns in stance during running 18 . Further, a previous study varying overstriding during treadmill (TM) running demonstrated a positive correlation between overstriding and braking impulse 13 , a force metric potentially related to injury. Leveraging the geometric relationship between overstriding and lower extremity sagittal segment angles may enable measurement of overstriding outside of the laboratory. ...
... Simplifying the usability of wearable sensors in real-world environments is key to understanding the link between biomechanics and running injury risk. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to validate that wearable IMUs alone can predict overstriding during TM and OG running and to demonstrate that such IMU-derived overstriding metrics correlate with braking force metrics 13,21 . ...
... LMM regressions were chosen to account for repeated measures on the same individuals 13 . These models are known as "mixed" models because they contain both fixed effects and random effects, with the latter accounting for individual differences in response. ...
Running injuries are prevalent, but their exact mechanisms remain unknown largely due to limited real-world biomechanical analysis. Reducing overstriding, the horizontal distance that the foot lands ahead of the body, may be relevant to reducing injury risk. Here, we leverage the geometric relationship between overstriding and lower extremity sagittal segment angles to demonstrate that wearable inertial measurement units (IMUs) can predict overstriding during treadmill and overground running in the laboratory. Ten recreational runners matched their strides to a metronome to systematically vary overstriding during constant-speed treadmill running and showed similar overstriding variation during comfortable-speed overground running. Linear mixed models were used to analyze repeated measures of overstriding and sagittal segment angles measured with motion capture and IMUs. Sagittal segment angles measured with IMUs explained 95% and 98% of the variance in overstriding during treadmill and overground running, respectively. We also found that sagittal segment angles measured with IMUs correlated with peak braking force and explained 88% and 80% of the variance during treadmill and overground running, respectively. This study highlights the potential for IMUs to provide insights into landing and loading patterns over time in real-world running environments, and motivates future research on feedback to modify form and prevent injury.
... Where running step rate varied, foot inclination angles [20], time in stance phase [18] and foot-strike patterns [19] also differed significantly between sub-groups. Given the established relationship between these variables [53][54][55][56], there is a compelling argument for the role of step rate in kinematic sub-group differentiation. ...
Background
Historically, kinematic measures have been compared across injured and non-injured groups of runners, failing to take into account variability in kinematic patterns that exist independent of injury, and resulting in false positives. Research led by gait patterns and not pre-defined injury status is called for, to better understand running-related injury (RRI) aetiology and within- and between-group variability.
Objectives
Synthesise evidence for the existence of distinct kinematic sub-groups across a population of injured and healthy runners and assess between-group variability in kinematics, demographics and injury incidence.
Data Sources
Electronic database search: PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (Wiley), Embase, OVID, Scopus.
Eligibility Criteria
Original, peer-reviewed, research articles, published from database start to August 2022 and limited to English language were searched for quantitative and mixed-methods full-text studies that clustered injured runners according to kinematic variables.
Results
Five studies (n = 690) were included in the review. All studies detected the presence of distinct kinematic sub-groups of runners through cluster analysis. Sub-groups were defined by multiple differences in hip, knee and foot kinematics. Sex, step rate and running speed also varied significantly between groups. Random injury dispersal across sub-groups suggests no strong evidence for an association between kinematic sub-groups and injury type or location.
Conclusion
Sub-groups containing homogeneous gait patterns exist across healthy and injured populations of runners. It is likely that a single injury may be represented by multiple movement patterns, and therefore kinematics may not predict injury risk. Research to better understand the underlying causes of kinematic variability, and their associations with RRI, is warranted.
... Specifically, it has been demonstrated that pronounced hip adduction, rearfoot eversion and knee internal rotation can be potential risk factors for common running-related injuries like patello femoral pain syndrome, iliotibial band syndrome, and medial tibial stress syndrome (Aderem & Louw, 2015;Munteanu & Barton, 2011;Neal et al., 2016). These changes in running mechanics occur in order to minimize the metabolic cost and have also been related with running economy (Lieberman et al., 2015). In this sense, the neuromuscular system modifies the locomotion mechanics to reduce the loads over biological structures according to a "preferred movement path" (Nigg et al., 2017;Trudeau et al., 2019). ...
The purpose of this study was to determine if curved non-motorized treadmills can reproduce over-ground running better than motorized treadmills by analysing the differences in joint kinematics (hip, knee, and ankle) using SPM. Nineteen recreational runners completed three randomized running tests on these surfaces. Kinematic data from the hip, knee, and ankle joints were collected. Two-tailed SPM t-tests were performed to analyse time-continuous gait cycles in three anatomical planes of each joint. Higher within-subject variability was observed in the frontal and transverse planes during curved non-motorized treadmill running. SPM analysis showed more significant differences (p < 0.05) between curved non-motorized treadmill and overground than between motorized treadmill and overground, mainly in knee (from 12% to 30% and 93% to 99% of the gait cycle) and ankle (from 19% to 23% of the gait cycle) in the sagittal plane. Therefore, running on curved non-motorized treadmills is more biomechanically different compared to overground than motorized treadmills, and might not be the best strategy to replicate overground running in terms of joint kinematics during highly controlled research studies. However, they could be an interesting tool in rehabilitation or training environments since the changes observed in joint kinematics were likely not functionally relevant. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Locomotor demand is also represented in muscle architectural properties across taxonomic groups. In cursorial mammals, distal muscles are generally smaller, but have shorter muscle fiber lengths enabling high force production while maintaining a lighter distal limb which is advantageous for the swing phase of stride (Alexander et al., 1981;Lieberman et al., 2015). By comparison, primates have relatively larger distal fore and hindlimb muscle mass with long fiber lengths in association with the importance of manual and pedal dexterity in arboreal environments (Alexander et al., 1981). ...
Introduction: Muscle cross-sectional area is an important variable for understanding force generating potential and locomotor adaptation. Geometric scaling predicts area scales proportionally to body mass2/3. Previous research has quantified scaling relationships between hindlimb musculature and mass in apes, but these relationships have not been clearly established in humans. Scaling in the human lower-limb is likely influenced by bipedalism and dimorphism in lean and total body mass between the sexes.
Methods: To investigate these relationships, cross-sectional area in 20 muscles of the lower-limb were obtained through MRI in twenty-eight (14 female, 14 male) participants and measured in Analyze 14.0. Log transformed muscle cross-sectional areas were grouped by function (gluteals, knee extensors, hamstrings, biarticulate knee/hip flexors, plantarflexors), and least-squares regressions were calculated for each group against log-body mass.
Results: All muscle groups were significantly (p < 0.001) correlated with mass (0.56 < r² < 0.70) and, except for the gluteals, all groups scaled with positive allometry with slopes outside the 95% CI reported in the literature for apes. Correlations and slopes were lower for females (0.05 < r² < 0.62; 0.4 < b < 1.0), than males (0.56 < r² < 0.79: 0. 7< b < 1.9) in all muscle groups, but there were no statistically significant differences in slope except for the tensor fasciae latae and the hamstrings. However, including sex as a predictor in multiple regression analysis increased the explained variance in cross-sectional area by 1-18% across functional muscle groups.
Discussion: These results suggest human lower-limb muscle scaling has responded to force production requirements of bipedalism, but differences in lean and total mass do not clearly impact allometric equations in males and females.
