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Maximum clade credibility phylogeny for Bothrops asper, retrieved from mtDNA sequences Branches are colored according to the most probable “location state” of their descendant nodes. Values in branches indicate the location set probability of the ancestral state, in this case, the probability that the origin of the branch occurred in the region that is now Colombia. Bayesian support for clades as in Fig 2.
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The uplift and final connection of the Central American land bridge is considered the major event that allowed biotic exchange between vertebrate lineages of northern and southern origin in the New World. However, given the complex tectonics that shaped Middle America, there is still substantial controversy over details of this geographical reconne...
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Introducción. El ofidismo en Colombia es un problema de salud pública, lo cual se hace evidente al examinar los datos epidemiológicos a nivel latinoamericano, pues el país ocupa el tercer lugar en número de accidentes ofídicos después de Brasil y México.
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Bothrops alternatus is a widely distributed viperid species, occurring in central, southeastern, and southern Brazil, to Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina.
A summary of distribution and natural history aspects of Bothrops atrox in Colombia.
Citations
... Additionally, sexual dimorphism in B. asper should be studied at a population level, due to the high diversity within this species complex (Shine & Goiran, 2021). It is likely that sexual dimorphism is dependent on macrohabitat conditions and heavily influenced by speciation (Hendry, Guiher & Pyron, 2014), which occurs in many Terciopelo populations (Saldarriaga-Córdoba et al., 2009;Salazar-Valenzuela, 2016;Saldarriaga-Córdoba et al., 2017;Salazar-Valenzuela et al., 2019;Mora-Obando et al., 2020). ...
Thoroughly documenting prey items and diet composition is crucial for understanding a predator’s role in the ecosystem. In gape restricted predators, such as snakes, documenting and analyzing the type and size of the prey is important to interpret their ecological role. We describe the diet patterns of a species of venomous snake, the Terciopelo pit viper ( Bothrops asper ), from its Ecuadorian populations. Examining the gastrointestinal contents of museum specimens collected over an extensive area of the Pacific lowlands of Ecuador, we encountered 69 identifiable prey items from four major taxonomic groups (amphibians, centipedes, mammals, and reptiles). We evaluated the observed composition of prey to check for differences between sexes and size-classes. To complement our observations of the Terciopelo species complex throughout their distribution, we carried out a systematic literature review. Our data show an ontogenetic shift in diet, with a transition from more diverse diet in juveniles towards a mammal-specialized diet in adults, and distinct proportion of prey taxa between the sexes in the juvenile size class.
... The final uplift of the central mountainous axis, particularly the Cordillera de Talamanca, during the Pliocene (MacMillan et al. 2004) constitutes one of the most recognized cladogenic events that shaped the biogeography of the region (Daza et al. 2010). This final uplift promoted the population structure and restricted gene flow between populations that, like T. ocelote, are distributed in the humid lowlands of Lower Central America (Wang et al. 2008;Saldarriaga-Córdoba et al. 2017). ...
The subgenus Tityus (Archaeotityus) includes small variegated species considered until recently, a basal group within Tityus, one of the most diverse and medically relevant genera of scorpions in the New World. Archaeotityus species are distributed in the humid forests of Lower Central America and the Choco, Guiana Shield, and Amazonian regions. Due to their size and habits, Archaeotityus species are not usually considered dangerous, however, there are some clinical reports that show otherwise. To contribute to the toxinological knowledge of these poorly explored species, we characterized the venom of Tityus ocelote from three localities in Costa Rica. In addition, we assessed the evolutionary relationships of putative sodium channel-modulating peptides found in this species with those reported for other members of the genus, through a maximum likelihood phylogenetic analysis based on their amino acid sequences. We observed the presence of homologs of previously identified NaTx from the species Tityus (Archaeotityus) clathratus and some other putative Na+ and K+ channel modulating peptides related to the T. bahiensis group. In addition, we sequenced some peptides related to toxins present in the venom of the subgenus Atreus, such as those reported for T. obscurus, T. pachyurus, and the Costa Rican endemic species T. dedoslargos. Our phylogenetic analysis suggests that the venom of this Archaeotityus species is very complex and that some of the ion channel toxins expressed in it are related to distinct lineages within the genus Tityus, which could represent a plesiomorphic condition conserved in this group of scorpions of the New World.
... rhombeatus and B. ayerbei) based on subtle morphological differences (Folleco-Fernández, 2010). Recent studies, which combine morphological, molecular, and geographic data, agree that B. asper has a complex phylogeographic structure, with the existence of different lineages throughout its distribution (Salazar-Valenzuela, 2016;Salazar-Valenzuela et al., 2019;Saldarriaga-Córdoba et al., 2017). ...
... On the basis of these studies, the existence of 9-10 lineages has been proposed (Salazar-Valenzuela, 2016;Saldarriaga-Córdoba et al., 2017;Salazar-Valenzuela et al., 2019), including the variants of the inter-Andean valleys of southwestern Colombia and Ecuador. These lineages are defined as recent, resulting from divergence processes that seem to have occurred during the Pleistocene in the last 1.15-2.1 Mya. ...
... Mora-Obando et al. (2020) carried out a proteomic comparison of B. asper venoms in the context of inter-lineage genetic variability based on the phylogeographic analyses of Saldarriaga-Córdoba et al. (2017) and Salazar-Valenzuela (2016). They compared the variation of the venom from five lineages of B. asper with distribution in Colombia and Ecuador and included chromatographic profiles of B. asper venoms from Mesoamerica and Northern South America to have a more general overview of the geographic variability of the venom of the species in its distribution range and to find clues that would allow the understanding of the divergences among the lineages. ...
Snake venoms are a complex biological mixture of proteins with or without enzymatic activity, peptides, and nucleotides, among other components. It is produced in specialized secretory glands located in the maxillary region, being the result of millions of years of evolution and whose biological functions are defense, immobilization, and digestion of prey. Venoms present intraspecific (i.e., individual, ontogenetic, geographical) and interspecific (i.e., between sympatric and allopatric species) variation, and the study of this variability has become the focus of toxinological research. Bothrops asper is responsible for highest incidence, morbimortality and severe cases of envenoming in Mesoamerica and northern South America. Given its clinical importance, its venom has been characterized and compared qualitatively and quantitatively across the species range. More than 50 years of research show that B. asper venom is endowed with an interesting intraspecific variability. Knowing this variation has allowed advances in the elucidation of the biological role of the venom, a better understanding of the clinical signs and symptoms in patients envenomed by B asper, the immunological implications in the context of antivenoms production, and the generation of new ideas that could be useful to solve different biological and evolutionary questions of one of the venomous snakes with the greatest distribution and strongest public health impact in Latin America.
... In contrast, the bushmasters at our study site preferred drier ground (well drained hill tops and slopes), and muddy depressions were only frequented by individual 3T. However, local attributes and population effect render it difficult to directly compare the Costa Rican Terciopelo pitviper with the Atlantic bushmaster at REM, since the former pitviper is regionally known to inhabit even drier habitats than the bushmaster, e.g., tropical dry forest in southwestern Ecuador (Saldarriaga-Córdoba et al. 2017). The swamp preference by Costa Rican B. asper is likely related to foraging on common amphibian prey, whereas bushmaster solely preys on rodents, hence, reflecting its reduced association with riparian habitat. ...
This is the first multiple months study on home range and habitat use by a small group of bushmaster (Lachesis spp.). Five snakes (natives and translocated) were intensively radio tracked in a mosaic of plantations and small fragments of Atlantic Forest in the Reserva Ecologica Michelin in Bahia, Brazil. The average home range was 9.47 ha (MCP 95%) and 44.11 (Kernel 95%) for bushmasters tracked for more than 6 months. The macrohabitats used were primarily composed of disturbed primary (partially logged) and secondary (originally cleared) forests, but also of rubber tree plantations with a dense understory vegetation. Activity centres were closer to the forest edge (~ 22 m) than the core of the small forest fragments. The snakes mainly occupied wooded microhabitats with complex vegetation structures, around 50% under- and mid-story cover. Nocturnal ambush differed from diurnal resting microhabitats on the surface mainly by being significantly closer to mammal trails and a more open understory space. While mammal burrows and refuges under roots and rocks have been used, diurnal resting was primarily on the forest floor (75%). Translocation from sites > 20 km outside the study site has produced little evidence of negative effect, as all individuals grew impressively, continued an apparently normal life and established a home range similar to native bushmasters.
... These dynamics can explain the rainfall-independent seasonality of incidence found in region 2, and the association between incidence and rainfall-driven seasonality found in region 6. Nevertheless, Bothrops asper populations in Colombia are genetically different from populations in Costa Rica, so population dynamics between both populations may vary [57]. In addition, it is known that in Brazilian Amazonas, the reproductive cycle of Bothrops atrox is not seasonal, where births occur during most of the year [12]. ...
The role of climate driving zoonotic diseases’ population dynamics has typically been addressed via retrospective analyses of national aggregated incidence records. A central question in epidemiology has been whether seasonal and interannual cycles are driven by climate variation or generated by socioeconomic factors. Here, we use compartmental models to quantify the role of rainfall and temperature in the dynamics of snakebite, which is one of the primary neglected tropical diseases. We took advantage of space-time datasets of snakebite incidence, rainfall, and temperature for Colombia and combined it with stochastic compartmental models and iterated filtering methods to show the role of rainfall-driven seasonality modulating the encounter frequency with venomous snakes. Then we identified six zones with different rainfall patterns to demonstrate that the relationship between rainfall and snakebite incidence was heterogeneous in space. We show that rainfall only drives snakebite incidence in regions with marked dry seasons, where rainfall becomes the limiting resource, while temperature does not modulate snakebite incidence. In addition, the encounter frequency differs between regions, and it is higher in regions where Bothrops atrox can be found. Our results show how the heterogeneous spatial distribution of snakebite risk seasonality in the country may be related to important traits of venomous snakes’ natural history.
... In our ML tree, the two B. asper BINs formed clades and together they formed a larger monophyletic group, with B. atrox sister to it. A recent study has identified multiple clades within Bothrops asper [54]. They used different genes than COI, but it appears that our specimens extend the range of the CICA clade [54] to the Bocas del Toro region of Panama. ...
... A recent study has identified multiple clades within Bothrops asper [54]. They used different genes than COI, but it appears that our specimens extend the range of the CICA clade [54] to the Bocas del Toro region of Panama. ...
Natural history collections are essential to a wide variety of studies in biology because they maintain large collections of specimens and associated data, including genetic material (e.g., tissues) for DNA sequence data, yet they are currently under-funded and collection staff have high workloads. With the advent of aggregate databases and advances in sequencing technologies, there is an increased demand on collection staff for access to tissue samples and associated data. Scientists are rapidly developing large DNA barcode libraries, DNA sequences of specific genes for species across the tree of life, in order to document and conserve biodiversity. In doing so, mistakes are made. For instance, inconsistent taxonomic information is commonly taken from different lending institutions and deposited in data repositories, such as the Barcode of Life Database (BOLD) and GenBank, despite explicit disclaimers regarding the need for taxonomic verification by the lending institutions. Such errors can have profound effects on subsequent research based on these mis-labelled sequences in data repositories. Here, we present the production of a large DNA barcode library of reptiles from the National Museum of Natural History tissue holdings. The library contains 2,758 sequences (2,205 COI and 553 16S) from 2260 specimens (four crocodilians, 37 turtles, and 2,219 lizards, including snakes), representing 583 named species, from 52 countries. In generating this library, we noticed several common mistakes made by scientists depositing DNA barcode data in public repositories (e.g., BOLD and GenBank). Our goal is to raise awareness of these concerns and offer advice to avoid such mistakes in the future to maintain accurate DNA barcode libraries to properly document Earth’s biodiversity.
... It is probably a consequence of an allopatric variability because the populations are isolated by mountain barriers such as the western mountain range. This mountain range reaches the highest altitude during the northern Andes uplift in the late Pliocene or the Plio-Pleistocene borderline [25,26]. As a result, the comparison between the snake venom from these three ecoregions shows that B. asper snake venoms from the Pacific zone of Colombia are more myonecrotic (Fig. 4A) than the Western ecoregion correlated with the highest PLA 2 activity (Fig. 6A). ...
Bothrops asper envenoming is a public health problem in tropical regions of Latin America. Bothrops asper has spread until Gorgona Island in the Pacific Colombian Ocean, but its biochemical venom characterization is poorly known. Thus, to increase knowledge on Bothrops species venoms, we developed for the first time the proteomic analysis using a shotgun approach and performed functional evaluations relevant to its toxicity and compared with two Colombian Southwest ecoregions from the Pacific and Western sides. Besides, we evaluated two antivenoms produced in Colombia (INS and PROBIOL) against three B. asper venom ecoregions through the ELISA approach and first-generation antivenom against B. asper from Gorgona Island. The protein components of B. asper from Gorgona Island were assigned to nine known protein families, sharing a conserved compositional pattern with B. asper from the pacific ecoregion. The RP-HPLC and in vitro activity suggest a phenotypic congruence in the expression of PLA2s and metalloproteinases between the B. asper snake venom from Gorgona Island and pacific, but inversely to the Western ecoregion. Additionally, the antivenoms immunoreactivity against the three B. asper lineage venoms was different. The INS displayed higher titers than PROBIOL against all the venoms and exhibited the most effective immunocapturing capacity against the individual components of snake venom from Gorgona Island. The results of this investigation suggest that B. asper from Gorgona Island displayed similar clinical manifestations concerning the Pacific ecoregion, and the immunoreactivity by antivenoms could be used after B. asper envenomation in Gorgona Island, using one of them preferably.
... Within this lineage all the ancestors occupied South America, except the most recent common ancestor of Leptosciurus boquetensis and L. isthmius, estimated to have inhabited Central America (Figure 1).Previous studies suggested a directional diversification process following the latitudinal gradient from North America to South America giving rise to all Neotropical taxa. Our results, supported by ancestral range estimation of Sciurini in both global and Neotropical scales, do not corroborate this hypothesis, and indicate a much more complex pattern, with distinct colonization events from South to Central America and vice-versa and perhaps through distinct dispersal routes.Several Central American vertebrate lineages that originated along the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary have been shown to exhibit their ancestral ranges in northern South America(Barrantes, 2009;Saldarriaga-Córdoba et al., 2017;Maestri et al., 2019). Savage(2002) proposed a two-step dispersal pulse hypothesis to explain amphibians and reptiles of South America inhabiting Middle America. ...
Squirrels are conspicuous inhabitants of most Neotropical forests, where they play ecologically crucial roles as seed predators and dispersers. Two distinct radiations are found in this region: the subfamily Sciurillinae, represented exclusively by the Neotropical pygmy squirrel (Sciurillus pusillus); and the tribe Sciurini (subfamily Sciurinae), a speciose group composed of about 45 species of tree squirrels that also occur throughout the Nearctic and Palearctic regions. Despite their unquestionable importance to ecosystems dynamics and representing a substantial portion of the diversity of rodents in the Neotropics, squirrels have been largely neglected by taxonomists and systematists. As a result, basic information on number of genera and species is still ambiguous for the group, and also most aspects of their evolution and diversification remains unclear. In the present thesis, I employed mitochondrial genomes and Ultraconserved Elements to undertake the molecular systematics and the evolutionary history of the two radiations of Neotropical squirrels. In the Chapter 1, I used mitogenomic data sequenced from 232 historical and modern museum specimens to provide the first comprehensive phylogeny of tree squirrels. I contrasted the phylogenetic results with generic arrangements proposed for the tribe Sciurini, discussed the taxonomic implications, and suggested a tentative new classification at genus level employing 13 generic names used by previous authors. I also found evidence that the diversity of Neotropical tree squirrels is underestimated, with at least six lineages that represent taxa to be named or revalidated. In the Chapter 2, my main objective was to test current hypotheses on the tempo and mode of diversification of tree squirrels, employing the mitogenomic dataset including 43 of the 46 putative species of Sciurini. I estimated the date of origin of the tribe Sciurini around 14 Mya and suggested that its ancestral area was most likely in North America. The origin of the Neotropical radiation was estimated to have occurred around 6 Mya in northwestern South America, in the Pacific dominion. The majority of Neotropical cladogenetic events occurred along the Pliocene—right after the South American invasion. A fairly constant speciation rate was estimated for tree squirrels, which contrasts with the peak of lineage accumulation observed in the Pliocene. In the Chapter 3, I provided a nuclear genome-wide perspective of the Neotropical squirrels (Sciurillinae and Sciurinae: Sciurini) phylogeny, employing over 3,700 Ultraconserved Elements sequenced from 184 historical and modern samples. Phylogenetic analyzes estimated with strong support the relationship among the five subfamilies of Sciuridae, and also provided consistent and well-supported results for the relationships among the deepest branches of Sciurini. For the Neotropical radiation, which experienced a rapid diversification, conflicting relationships at both genus- and species-level were estimated upon data filtering and inference method. Inconsistences were also recovered with regards to the mitogenomic hypothesis. Finally, in both chapters 1 and 3, I took advantage of the large sampling across a diverse lineage of mammals to investigate how distinct aspects of historical samples might influence the recovery of genomic data, providing useful information for future genetic studies sampling from historical specimens.
... Mya, as the result of geological events, including the uplift of the Guanacaste, Central, and Talamanca mountain ranges in Mesoamerica, the late Miocene through the Pliocene; the closure of the Isthmus of Panamá; and the uplift of the Andes mountain range in South America. Habitat fragmentation promoted new ecological niche opportunities and led to allopatric speciation in these groups [36,37]. We have applied PLA 2 mass profiling to elucidate biogeographical patterns of the highly adaptable and widely distributed B. atrox and B. asper, which are considered the most dangerous snakes throughout much of their distribution range in the Amazon region (B. ...
This short essay pretends to make the reader reflect on the concept of biological mass and on the added value that the determination of this molecular property of a protein brings to the interpretation of evolutionary and translational snake venomics research. Starting from the premise that the amino acid sequence is the most distinctive primary molecular characteristics of any protein, the thesis underlying the first part of this essay is that the isotopic distribution of a protein's molecular mass serves to unambiguously differentiate it from any other of an organism's proteome. In the second part of the essay, we discuss examples of collaborative projects among our laboratories, where mass profiling of snake venom PLA2 across conspecific populations played a key role revealing dispersal routes that determined the current phylogeographic pattern of the species.
... The geological history and topological diversity of landscapes make Central America one of the most complicated regions on Earth (Bagley & Johnson 2014;Coates, 1997;Mann, 2007;Townsend, 2014). Likewise, tropical Central America has an exceptionally rich biodiversity (Saldarriaga-Córdoba et al., 2017). The Chortis Block, which consists of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua (Townsend, 2014), has been considered the nuclear region of northern Central America (Mann, 2007). ...
Leaf-toed geckos (Phyllodactylus) exhibit much cryptic diversity, at least in North
America. However, the origins of Central American taxa and their relationships with
North American congeners remain unknown. The P. tuberculosus species complex is
ideal for evolutionary and biogeographic studies because its geographic distribution
extends from northern Mexico to Costa Rica. We analyse ~2,500 nuclear loci obtained
by the GBS genomic technique to test hypotheses of genetic isolation among
taxa and estimate times of divergence using a relaxed molecular clock model, which
constitutes the first hypothesis for the diversification of North and Central American
phyllodactylids. Phylogenetic analysis recovers three main clades within polyphyletic
P. tuberculosus: tuberculosus, magnus and saxatilis. ABBA-BABA tests show moderate to low levels of gene flow within the latter two clades and yet genetic isolation in Central American lineages. The relaxed molecular clock model dates the age of the MRCA between the Central American and North American lineages to the beginning of the Paleocene (65 mya), suggesting an ancestral distribution in the proto-Mexican region and the Chortis Block.
