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Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine, (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) regenerates quickly after high severity fire because seeds from serotinous cones are released immediately post-fire. Sierra
lodgepole pine (P. contorta var. murrayana) forests burn with variable intensity resulting in different levels of severity and because this variety of lodgepole pi...
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... lies at the southern end of the Cascade Range, a volcanic plateau punctuated by high volcanic peaks (Fig. 1). LVNP itself is underlain by recent (Pliocene to Quarternary) andesites, rhyolites, and basalts (Kane 1980). Dominant vegetation communities covary with elevation (Parker 1986(Parker , 1991(Parker , 1993Taylor 1990Taylor , 2000Schoenherr 1992). High elevation forests are dominated by mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) and whitebark ...
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... Moreover, where forested refugia are located in a landscape can also affect post-fire regeneration. Regeneration density in burns above surrounding seed sources tends to be lower than in burns below seed sources, particularly when seed sources align with prevailing winds (Pierce and Taylor, 2011;Peeler and Smithwick, 2020). ...
... Coop et al. 2010, Donato et al. 2016. However, tree recruitment after a fire can continue for decades because conditions supporting conifer regeneration may be infrequent (Nagel and Taylor, 2005;Pierce and Taylor, 2011;Tepley et al. 2013). Although the likelihood of tree regeneration generally increases with time since fire in the western US (Davis et al. 2023), further assessment of time since fire effects is needed for individual species and forest types. ...
... Additional post-fire regeneration data from LAVO was also included in our study. Pierce and Taylor (2011) and Harris et al. (2021a) surveyed post-fire regeneration in plots (n=30) following the Badger fire (1984) which were resampled (n=27) after the Reading fire (2012). Methods and measurements taken in these additional plots were similar to those in our regeneration plots (Appendix S1). ...
Contemporary fire regimes in Californian forests are shifting, with fires becoming larger, more frequent, and increasingly severe. As landscapes transition back to active fire regimes, understanding how the physical environment and biological legacies of past disturbance interact with and determine forest development becomes an increasingly important management concern. We surveyed post-fire regeneration in a wilderness area of Lassen Volcanic National Park (LAVO) with a three-decade history of fires. We tallied conifer seedlings , and measured shrub and ground cover and mature trees in the field, and used geospatial data and water balance models to account for the possible effects of , terrain, live seed sources, vegetation characteristics, and immediate post-fire climate as measured by water balance on conifer regeneration. We used a Random Forest machine learning technique to model how landscape and local factors affect post-fire regeneration stocking and species regeneration occurrence. Post-fire conifer regeneration in LAVO was common: Median post-fire seedling density was close to desired stocking density, 73% of our plots had at least one conifer seedling, and only 16% of plots lacked tree regeneration or mature trees. Likelihood of stocking and individual species’ occurrence was most strongly related to time since fire, distance to forest, elevation, and species of nearest seed source. Tree regeneration increased with time since fire, but this effect was more pronounced at high elevation suggesting an interaction between terrain and time since fire on regeneration. Stocking was most likely on cooler (northeastern) slopes and at lower (<1950 m) elevations, nearer (within 200 m) to live forest patches, and where shrub cover was present but low (<20%). Climatic conditions as represented by water balance for the first five years after a fire did not influence likelihood of stocking but it did influence species occurrence. Distance to conspecific trees was important for species’ regeneration occurrence, and the landscape pattern of species occurrence was consistent with the elevational zonation of forest dominants in LAVO. Adequate tree regeneration of forests with an active fire regime in LAVO indicate that California montane forests are resilient to prescribed fire and managed wildfire and that expanded use of fire to reduce potential for severe fire promotes resilience in California forest landscapes.
... Vegetation and post-fire tree regeneration were assessed in 2008 following a 1984 wildfire that burned at a range of fire severities, and then again in 2019 following a 2012 wildfire that burned mainly at high severity. Building on an earlier analysis of tree regeneration at this site by Pierce and Taylor (2011), we assessed the influences of burn severity, stand structure and microsite characteristics (for example, cover of shrubs, logs and rocks) on tree seedling and sapling density following the 2012 fire. Through these analyses, we evaluated the legacy effects of the 1984 fire on subsequent forest change and whether the second, higher-severity 2012 fire diminished, reinforced or amplified these effects. ...
... Through these analyses, we evaluated the legacy effects of the 1984 fire on subsequent forest change and whether the second, higher-severity 2012 fire diminished, reinforced or amplified these effects. We hypothesized that tree seedling and sapling density would be strongly correlated with density of and distance to cone-bearing trees following the 2012 fire, because Sierra lodgepole pine is not serotinous and therefore has to seed in from nearby surviving trees following a fire (Dahms 1963;Pierce and Taylor 2011). Consequently, we expected the second, predominantly high-severity 2012 fire to diminish any legacy effect of the 1984 fire because of the large reduction in density of surviving seed trees. ...
... This area burned again in the 2012 Reading Fire (10,876 ha). In 2008 Pierce and Taylor (2011) assessed vegetation change caused by the Badger Fire within three lodgepole pine-dominated study sites (40.552°N, 121.404°W) selected to be homogenous with respect to terrain and soils so that the influence of burn severity on tree regeneration could be isolated. These sites were in flat, low-lying basins in which cold air pooling and potentially coarse or low-nutrient substrate often exclude trees species other than lodgepole pine (Cochran and others 1967;Cochran and Berntsen 1973;Parker 1993). ...
Legacy effects from one disturbance may influence successional pathways by amplifying or buffering forest regeneration after the next disturbance. We assessed vegetation and tree regeneration in non-serotinous Sierra lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. murrayana) stands after a 1984 wildfire which burned with variable severity and again after a high-severity subsequent fire in 2012. The legacy effects of the 1984 fire were amplified; seedlings and saplings were abundant in areas initially burned at low severity (1267 stems ha−1) despite high reburn severity, but regeneration was low in areas twice burned at high severity (31 stems ha−1). Our results suggest that the severity of the 1984 fire may have influenced post-2012 tree regeneration by creating variable fuel loading, which may have affected soils, litter cover and shade after the 2012 fire and therefore affected seedling establishment and survival. A canopy seed bank of unburnt cones from trees killed by the 2012 fire potentially contributed to a strong effect of prior burn severity on regeneration after the 2012 fire despite a lack of serotinous or resprouting tree species, although the influence of this canopy seedbank was likely limited to the year following the fire. Our results suggest that a low- to moderate-severity fire increases forest resilience relative to a high-severity fire even when the next fire burns at high severity.
... Although many of these historical accounts often contain an inherent bias and other limitations, they nevertheless offer a unique perspective on the historical conditions of red fir and subalpine forests not captured in other historical information sources. Parker (1992Parker ( , 1993, Pierce and Taylor (2011), Taylor (1990Taylor ( , 1997Taylor ( , 2000, Halpern (1991, 1993) Selter et al. (1986), Barbour and Woodward (1985) 19 Barbour and Woodward (1985) a Many of the sites listed have been influenced by a century or more of fire exclusion. In these areas, natural range of variation (NRV) estimates were generally obtained from historical (presuppression) stand reconstructions and fire history studies. ...
... The relationship between fire severity and postfire regeneration patterns was also evaluated in lodgepole pine-red fir stands in Lassen Volcanic National Park. In their study, Pierce and Taylor (2011) found high levels of variability among severity classes and no significant difference in red fir seedling densities in low-, moderate-, and high-severity patches; however, they also found no red fir saplings 24 years postfire in high-severity patches. Shrubs have been shown to ameliorate the microclimate in burned sites and allow for fir seedlings to become established and slowly (30 to 50 years) overtop the shrub canopy (Laacke and Tappeiner 1996). ...
This assessment uses historical observations and datasets, as well as studies conducted in contemporary reference landscapes (i.e., those with active fire regimes and minimal management impacts) to define the natural range of variation (NRV) for red fir (Abies magnifica) and subalpine forests in northwestern California and southwestern Oregon.
... Pinus contorta experiences high levels of fire-induced mortality (Baker 2009), and it recovers rapidly following fire in its native range in western North America (e.g. Turner et al. 1997;Pierce and Taylor 2011;Kemp et al. 2016). However, we have found that in the introduced range, fire only promotes P. contorta establishment when the invasion density prior to the fire was high (Taylor et al. 2017). ...
... Stands with high levels of serotiny tend to regenerate with the highest density following fire (Turner et al. 1997). However, even non-serotinous P. contorta can regenerate abundantly following fire (Pierce and Taylor 2011;Harvey et al. 2016), likely because P. contorta germinates best on bare mineral soil, is a prolific seed producer, exhibits high germination and establishment rates, and benefits from reduced competition with herbaceous species and lower canopy cover following fire (Lotan and Critchfield 1990;Despain 2001;Ledgard 2001). Most P. contorta seed germinates in the first year and seeds are likely not viable in the seedbank beyond three to four years (Ledgard 2001). ...
... Turner et al. 1997;Kemp et al. 2016), even where it is not serotinous (e.g. Pierce and Taylor 2011). However, a steppe site in Northern Patagonia showed high post-fire densities only in plots with older, dense pre-fire invasions (Taylor et al. 2017). ...
To best understand plant invasions and predict unexpected outcomes it is necessary to integrate information on disturbance, the local environment, and demography. Disturbance by fire has been shown to promote invasions worldwide, but precise interactions between fire, native and invading species remain unclear. Indeed, trade-offs exist between fire-induced mortality of seed sources and increased establishment, driving invasion outcomes. A positive feedback between lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) invasions and fire has been identified but only above a certain pine density. Above this threshold, fire resulted in increased pine dominance at the plot level, however below this threshold establishment rates did not change. We used a spatially explicit invasion simulation model modified to include fire to explore the implications of these complex interactions between pine invasions and fire. We asked if fire promoted P. contorta invasion across a Patagonian steppe site and if this depended on the age of the invasion when it burned. Our simulations indicated that, although fire was not necessary to initiate invasion, fire in communities where pine invasions were at least 10 years old resulted in increased spatial extent and maximum invasion density compared to unburned simulations. Fire through younger invasions did not alter the progression of the invasion compared to unburned simulations. Pine invasions should be managed before they reach an advanced stage where positive feedbacks between fire and pine invasion could lead to dramatic increases in invasion rate.
... Of the factors influencing regeneration, ensuring a sufficient supply of seeds and the establishment of suitable seedbed conditions have been widely identified as the two key requirements for the successful recruitment of target canopy species, particularly in the context of sustainable silvicultural practices (O'Dowd and Gill, 1984;Neyland et al., 2009;Legras et al., 2010;Vesk et al., 2010;McCaw, 2011;Pierce and Taylor, 2011;Puhlick et al., 2012;Fairman et al., 2016). Managers are able to manipulate both factors through the use of prescribed burning to facilitate both mass seed fall and the creation of suitable post-fire seedbed conditions for seedling emergence and establishment. ...
... Managers are able to manipulate both factors through the use of prescribed burning to facilitate both mass seed fall and the creation of suitable post-fire seedbed conditions for seedling emergence and establishment. A number of studies have shown that seed fall rates increase significantly after fire, particularly in Eucalyptus-dominated forests and other forests with dominant serotinous species (Loneragan, 1979;O'Dowd and Gill, 1984;Hancock et al., 2009;Pierce and Taylor, 2011). Releasing canopy seed crops through prescribed burning increases the amount of seed falling to the forest floor and thus increases the chance of an individual seed finding a suitable microsite for both germination and subsequent establishment. ...
Successful and adequate recruitment of seedlings is an essential ecological process in forest ecosystem dynamics and is a key principle underpinning sustainable timber harvesting. This is particularly so with the shelterwood silvicultural system used in the jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest of south-west Australia where partial cuts of overstorey are made followed by prescribed burning to stimulate seed fall and seedling establishment. There have been concerns over the lack of seedling recruitment in some shelterwood-treated areas of the jarrah forest, and hence this study was implemented to explore the roles of seed supply and seedbed conditions in limiting recruitment of jarrah seedlings. Low seedling densities were recorded across all six burnt study sites and were strongly correlated (at both broad and fine scales) with both canopy seed store and seed fall. Ample levels of post-burn seed fall only resulted in low seedling numbers suggesting that adequate seed supply did not coincide with seedbed conditions suitable for mass seedling regeneration. Conditions favourable for seedling recruitment were highly variable within sites, since both seed supply and seedbed conditions were spatially heterogeneous. Fine-scale areas burnt to mineral soil showed an additive influence to the overwhelmingly dominant factor of seed supply on seedling recruitment. However, the capacity of low intensity burns to produce these seedbed conditions at a broad scale appears to be limited. Results suggest that successful stocking of shelterwood-treated jarrah forest is not always feasible following a single silvicultural event, such as post-harvest burning under mild conditions. The chances of ample seed supply coinciding with broad-scale seedbed conditions favourable for mass germination, emergence and establishment appear to be low. Successful stocking of shelterwood-treated jarrah forest is more likely to be a longer term outcome achieved through episodic recruitment, especially when favourable environmental conditions coincide with optimal seedbed conditions. Such episodic recruitment strategies may be common in resource-limited systems such as jarrah forest and other dry eucalypt forest systems, where conditions controlling the regeneration niche are often variable and unpredictable.
... Restoration of historic fuel beds via seeding of native herbaceous species may also be necessary before burns can be safely conducted. Restoration efforts may be most effective in large patches of high-severity reburn, as these are less likely to experience substantial natural conifer regeneration due to lack of nearby seed sources (Donato et al., 2009b, Pierce and Taylor, 2010, Crotteau et al., 2013. ...
Oak woodlands are dependent on frequent fire to maintain the low stem density and diverse understories that typify these ecosystems. Without this recurrent disturbance, fire-sensitive conifer competitors encroach on oaks, reducing their vigor, and diminishing habitat quality. In fire-excluded oak woodlands, stand-replacing wildfire can trigger shifts in canopy dominance from seed-generated conifers to oaks, which are capable of vigorous sprouting following topkill. We examined the occurrence and sprouting dynamics of California black oak (Quercus kelloggii Newb.) following repeated wildfires in the Lassen National Forest, California. We found that following reburn, changes in oak relative stand dominance, as well as oak sprout basal area and height, were each positively related to fire severity (P < 0.0001 for each analysis). While conifer regeneration suffered complete mortality at moderate and high reburn severities, 97% of topkilled oaks resprouted from surviving rootstocks, reinforcing oak dominance. Black oak resprouts that originated following topkill in the first wildfire were frequently topkilled in the second fire, including at lower burn severities survived by advance conifer regeneration. The results of this study indicate that while as individuals, black oaks are resilient to recurring wildfire, restoration of historic woodland structure and function is an unlikely outcome of these repeated disturbances. Management of post-wildfire regenerating oak stands in this region will require supplemental fuel reduction treatments, including prescribed burning.
... contorta) ecosystem, for example, commonly experiences high-intensity, stand-replacing fires that kill most trees, but the species is adapted to populate postfire environments via cone serotiny (Turner et al. 1999, Schoennagel et al. 2008). Yet, a low-intensity fire that burns young lodgepole pine stands before saplings have produced serotinous cones may shift the ecosystem from a forest to a grassland or shrubland that may require centuries for pine to re-invade (Pierce andTaylor 2011, Clark et al. 2017). This delay in the recovery time does not mean that the system is not resilient, but that the magnitude of disturbance may not necessarily predict the magnitude or duration of ecological response. ...
Goals of fostering ecological resilience are increasingly used to guide U.S. public land management in the context of anthropogenic climate change and increasing landscape disturbances. There are, however, few operational means of assessing the resilience of a landscape or ecosystem. We present a method to evaluate resilience using simulation modeling. In this method, we use historical conditions (e.g., in North America, prior to European settlement), quantified using simulation modeling, to provide a comparative reference for contemporary conditions, where substantial departures indicate loss of resilience. Contemporary ecological conditions are compared statistically to the historical time series to create a resilience index, which can be used to prioritize landscapes for treatment and inform possible treatments. However, managing for resilience based on historical conditions is tenuous in the Anthropocene, which is characterized by rapid climate change, extensive human land use, altered disturbance regimes, and exotic species introductions. To account for the future variability of ecosystems resulting from climate and disturbance regime shifts, we augment historical simulations with simulations of ecosystem dynamics under projected climate and land use changes to assess the degree of departure from benchmark historical conditions. We use a mechanistic landscape model (FireBGCv2) applied to a large landscape in western Mon-tana, USA, to illustrate the methods presented in this paper. Spatially explicit ecosystem modeling provides the vehicle to generate the historical and future time series needed to quantify potential resilience conditions associated with past and potential future conditions. Our methods show that given selection of a useful set of metrics, managers could use simulations like ours to evaluate potential future management directions.
... contorta) ecosystem, for example, commonly experiences high-intensity, stand-replacing fires that kill most trees, but the species is adapted to populate postfire environments via cone serotiny (Turner et al. 1999, Schoennagel et al. 2008). Yet, a low-intensity fire that burns young lodgepole pine stands before saplings have produced serotinous cones may shift the ecosystem from a forest to a grassland or shrubland that may require centuries for pine to re-invade (Pierce andTaylor 2011, Clark et al. 2017). This delay in the recovery time does not mean that the system is not resilient, but that the magnitude of disturbance may not necessarily predict the magnitude or duration of ecological response. ...
Goals of fostering ecological resilience are increasingly used to guide U.S. public land management in the context of anthropogenic climate change and increasing landscape disturbances. There are, however, few operational means of assessing the resilience of a landscape or ecosystem. We present a method to evaluate resilience using simulation modeling. In this method, we use historical conditions (e.g., in North America, prior to European settlement), quantified using simulation modeling, to provide a comparative reference for contemporary conditions, where substantial departures indicate loss of resilience. Contemporary ecological conditions are compared statistically to the historical time series to create a resilience index, which can be used to prioritize landscapes for treatment and inform possible treatments. However, managing for resilience based on historical conditions is tenuous in the Anthropocene, which is characterized by rapid climate change, extensive human land use, altered disturbance regimes, and exotic species introductions. To account for the future variability of ecosystems resulting from climate and disturbance regime shifts, we augment historical simulations with simulations of ecosystem dynamics under projected climate and land use changes to assess the degree of departure from benchmark historical conditions. We use a mechanistic landscape model (FireBGCv2) applied to a large landscape in western Montana, USA, to illustrate the methods presented in this paper. Spatially explicit ecosystem modeling provides the vehicle to generate the historical and future time series needed to quantify potential resilience conditions associated with past and potential future conditions. Our methods show that given selection of a useful set of metrics, managers could use simulations like ours to evaluate potential future management directions.
... Lodgepole pine stands are characterized by even-aged establishment following high severity fire. Although lodgepole pine in the southern Cascade Range is not serotinous, it establishes in high severity postfire gaps via seed from surviving trees, and post-fire stand density is related to the proximity of these seed trees (Zeigler 1978, Pierce and Taylor 2011, Heyerdahl et al. 2014. ...
We examined stand structure, demography, and fire history using tree cores and fire scar data across an approximately 7000-hectare study area over an elevational gradient in the southern Cascade Range, Oregon, USA. Our plots were located in mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana [Bong.] Carr), red fir (Abies magnifica A. Murr.), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Loudon), and mixed conifer forest types. Stand demography from high elevation mountain hemlock forests showed continuous regeneration since the early 1600s and no fire scars present. Red fir forests showed both continuous and episodic regeneration over the past several centuries, providing evidence for a mixed-severity fire regime. Lodgepole pine stands were even-aged with no fire scar evidence and likely established following high severity fire events. Mixed conifer forests were uneven-aged. The majority of trees that we sampled established between 1880 and 1920. Interpretation of our data is limited by a small number of fire scars and relatively small sample size. However, our study highlights the spatial complexity of forest types and concomitant fire regimes on this landscape.
... In seasonally dry western forests, fire severity (defined here as basal area mortality from fire) and frequency are major drivers of plant community structure and forest successional patterns (Diaz-Delgado et al. 2003, Collins et al. 2007, Keeley 2009, Pierce and Taylor 2011. In the North American Mediterranean-climate zone (NAMCZ; southwestern Oregon, most of California, northwesternmost Mexico), yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa and P. jeffreyi) and mixed conifer (together we refer to these here as "YPMC") forests historically experienced frequent low and moderate severity fires Collins 2004, Beaty andTaylor 2007;Safford and Stevens, 2016), with mean fire return intervals of approximately 11-16 yr; at higher elevations, firs (Abies spp.) are more dominant, and pre-Euro-American fires were less common (FRIs ≥ 40 yr) and more severe (Van de Water and Safford 2011, Mallek et al. 2013. ...
... This study examines the biotic and abiotic factors that influence conifer regeneration success across multiple fire sites and years. Previous research has shown that natural conifer regeneration is most limited by propagule arrival, the availability of bare mineral soil and safe microsites that mitigate heat stress, and available moisture in the first few years of recolonization of burned landscapes (Hobbs et al. 1992, Zald et al. 2008, Irvine et al. 2009, Pierce and Taylor 2011. Although a number of studies have examined the effects of a single fire on specific species (Harvey et al. 2011, Pierce and Taylor 2011, Dodson and Root 2013, Crotteau et al. 2013, few have tracked species-specific responses across multiple fires spanning a range of elevation, annual precipitation, forest types, and fire severities (Shatford et al. 2007, Collins andRoller 2013). ...
... Previous research has shown that natural conifer regeneration is most limited by propagule arrival, the availability of bare mineral soil and safe microsites that mitigate heat stress, and available moisture in the first few years of recolonization of burned landscapes (Hobbs et al. 1992, Zald et al. 2008, Irvine et al. 2009, Pierce and Taylor 2011. Although a number of studies have examined the effects of a single fire on specific species (Harvey et al. 2011, Pierce and Taylor 2011, Dodson and Root 2013, Crotteau et al. 2013, few have tracked species-specific responses across multiple fires spanning a range of elevation, annual precipitation, forest types, and fire severities (Shatford et al. 2007, Collins andRoller 2013). Single-fire and single-species studies have limited application in understanding forest community assembly and succession in the postfire environment. ...
Due to fire suppression policies, timber harvest, and other management practices over the last century, many low- to mid-elevation forests in semiarid parts of the western United States have accumulated high fuel loads and dense, multi-layered canopies that are dominated by shade-tolerant and fire-sensitive conifers. To a great extent, the future status of western US forests will depend on tree species’ responses to patterns and trends in fire activity and fire behavior and postfire management decisions. This is especially the case in the North American Mediterranean-climate zone (NAMCZ), which supports the highest precipitation variability in North America and a 4- to 6-month annual drought, and has seen greater-than-average increases in air temperature and fire activity over the last three decades. We established 1490 survey plots in 14 burned areas on 10 National Forests across a range of elevations, forest types, and fire severities in the central and northern NAMCZ to provide insight into factors that promote natural tree regeneration after wildfires and the differences in postfire responses of the most common conifer species. We measured site characteristics, seedling densities, woody shrub, and tree growth. We specified a zero-inflated negative binomial mixed model with random effects to understand the importance of each measured variable in predicting conifer regeneration. Across all fires, 43% of all plots had no conifer regeneration. Ten of the 14 fires had median conifer seedling densities that did not meet Forest Service stocking density thresholds for mixed conifer forests. When regeneration did occur, it was dominated by shade-tolerant but fire-sensitive firs (Abies spp.), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and incense cedar (Calocedrus decurrens). Seedling densities of conifer species were lowest in sites that burned at high severity, principally due to the biotic consequences of high severity fire, for example, increased distances to live seed trees and competition with fire-following shrubs. We developed a second model specifically for forest managers and restoration practitioners who work in yellow pine and mixed conifer forests in the central NAMCZ to assess potential natural regeneration in the years immediately following a fire, allowing them to prioritize which areas may need active postfire forest restoration and supplemental planting.
