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... tap water hardness. Table 3 shows hardness summary statistics. Median value of 198 mg/L CaCO 3 is rather high and corresponds to a very hard water. The lowest hardness is observed in sites where Na-HCO 3 waters occur; for this reason the presence of softening systems can be assumed. The majority of the tap water is hard and very hard type (Fig. 6), and is found, predominantly, in areas dominated by carbonates. The latter occur frequently in the aquifers of the Po River Plain. Slightly and moderately hard waters characterize the aquifers of sites in the Alps and in Sardinia, likely located in metamorphic and plutonic ...
Context 2
... tap water hardness. Table 3 shows hardness summary statistics. Median value of 198 mg/L CaCO 3 is rather high and corresponds to a very hard water. The lowest hardness is observed in sites where Na-HCO 3 waters occur; for this reason the presence of softening systems can be assumed. The majority of the tap water is hard and very hard type (Fig. 6), and is found, predominantly, in areas dominated by carbonates. The latter occur frequently in the aquifers of the Po River Plain. Slightly and moderately hard waters characterize the aquifers of sites in the Alps and in Sardinia, likely located in metamorphic and plutonic ...
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... Therefore, investigating the current water quality is important to provide essential tools (fundamental dataset) and a platform for understanding various components impacting the water environment. However, although comprehensive and overview research covering major and trace components in drinking tap water has been conducted, especially in European countries [2][3][4][5][6][7] , no report exists on a nationwide survey of drinking tap water quality in Japan. ...
... The Piper trilinear diagram was used to categorize Japanese tap water types according to the contents of major cations (Ca + , Mg 2+ , K + , and Na + ) and major anions (Cl − , SO 4 2− , and HCO 3 − ) 39 . The Piper diagram consists of a central key diamond diagram and two triangular diagrams, showing the relative abundance of major ions. ...
... Target elements www.nature.com/scientificreports/ analyzed using ICP-OES were described as metals, such as Ca (not Ca 2+ ), in several references [2][3][4][5][6][7] . Total-hardness was calculated from the analytical data. ...
A nationwide survey of inorganic components of tap water all over Japan was conducted from 2019 to 2024. In this survey, 1564 tap water samples were collected, and an additional 194 tap water samples were collected from 33 other countries. The water samples were analyzed for 27 dissolved inorganic components, with a primary focus on the distribution of major and trace components, including Ca, Mg, K, Na, Cl⁻, NO3⁻, SO4²⁻, total-hardness, Al, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn. The Japanese tap water hardness was 50.5 ± 30.2 (± 1σ SD) mg/L, classified as soft water according to the World Health Organization (WHO) classification. The average content of each major component in Japanese tap water tended to be lower than those in other countries. Furthermore, Piper trilinear diagrams were used to categorize Japanese tap water types. The dominating water types were the Ca–HCO3 and mixed types, which had a nationwide distribution. Japanese tap water generally complied with Japanese and WHO drinking water criteria, with only 1% (17/1564 sites) of the samples exceeding water quality standards. Observations of water quality changes for 2 years at three household faucets revealed that fluctuations in major components and trace metals (Al, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn) varied in different patterns. This suggests that the behavior of trace metal elements is influenced by local infrastructure, such as supply pipes, distinct from the variability in source water quality.
... mg/l). In addition, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) is an important parameter, especially in the disinfection field for water [17,18]. Therefore, it is measured to identify dissolved oxygen in water. ...
Water quality and safety assessment has become essential in water resource studies. Water is an important substance in all aspects of life. Therefore, it must have beneficial compositions and ensure sustainable purity. Water quality monitoring is essential for the protection of public health. Sediments and pollutants in water could harm the organisms in the water body. Polluted water is a complex global problem affecting human and animal health, agriculture, and industry. Water could be affected and contaminated by toxic elements. Toxic element pollution is a serious environmental problem and a hazard that can be monitored in water. Technologies were developed to assess the essential and toxic elements in water. Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrophotometry (ICP-AES) has been used to analyze water and determine water quality. The results show the total concentration of all elements: 0.001-0.0042, 0.0095-0.004, 0.0066-0.0042, and 0.0923-0.078 mg/L for mercury, arsenic, cadmium, and lead, respectively. Physical and chemical properties of water samples, such as pH, salinity, TDS, EC, turbidity, and DO, were measured.
... However, when the sensor was tested in AZO solutions prepared in tap water (Figure 5b), its responses exhibited higher variations, as indicated by an elevated standard deviation, and subsequently raised the LOD and LOQ values of 3.6 nM and 11.8 nM, respectively. This could be attributed to tap water, which predominantly contains multiple dissolved ions, minerals, and other compounds [49][50][51], thereby leading to an increased background signal and noise. Nevertheless, AZO concentrations in the lowland stream water were found to be as high as 73.6 nM [52], indicating the practical utility of the AZO sensor for the analysis of environmental water. ...
This work presents an electrochemical sensor detecting a fungicide-azoxystrobin (AZO) in aqueous environments. This AZO sensor utilizes a thin-film metal electrode (TFME) combined with an AZO-selective molecularly imprinted polymer (AZO–MIP). The AZO–MIP was directly generated on TFME through electrochemical polymerization from the solution containing two functional monomers: aniline (Ani) and m-phenylenediamine (mPD), and the template: AZO, which was afterwards removed to form AZO-selective cavities in the polymer matrix. The AZO–MIP preparation was characterized by electrochemical and ellipsometry measurements. Optimization of the synthesis parameters, including the charge density applied during electrodeposition, the monomer-to-template ratio, was performed to enhance the sensor’s performance. The results demonstrated that the AZO sensor achieved a low limit of detection (LOD) of 3.6 nM and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 11.8 nM in tap water, indicating its sensitivity in a complex aqueous environment. The sensor also exhibited satisfactory selectivity for AZO in both ultrapure and tap-water samples and achieved a good recovery (94–119%) for the target analyte. This study highlights the potential of MIP-based electrochemical sensors for the rapid and accurate detection of fungicide contaminants in water, contributing to the advancement of analytical tools for water-quality monitoring and risk assessment.
... As a result of pipeline corrosion, large amounts of metallic elements were released, which changed the chemical composition of water during its transport [36,37]. Previous studies often reported deterioration in the quality of water transported through extensive distribution systems [38]. In the analyzed case, the distribution system is made mainly of thermoplastic materials, i.e., PE and PVC, which are characterized by high corrosion resistance and low surface porosity. ...
Monitoring the quality of tap water in the distribution system and the ability to estimate the risk of losing its sanitary safety is an important aspect of managing the collective water supply system. During monitoring, the physical, chemical, and biological stability of water was assessed, which is the main determinant ensuring the appropriate quality of water for consumers. The physicochemical and microbiological quality of water was analyzed for two distribution systems (DSs), including the analysis of heavy metals (Zn, Fe, Mn, Cr, Ni, Cu, Cd, Pb). The tests carried out showed that in both distribution systems, the water supplied to consumers met the guidelines for water intended for human consumption. It can be considered that the risk of uncontrolled changes in water quality in DSs with an average water production of <10,000 m3/d and the length of water pipelines < 150 km is very low. The water introduced into the system differed in the place of water intake and water purification technology, which influenced the final water quality. In DS(II), higher values were recorded for hardness, conductivity, calcium, alkalinity, nitrates, and DOC. It was found that the content of heavy metals during water transport to the consumer increased in the case of DS(I) for Zn, Ni, Cu, Cd, and Pb, and in the case of DS(II) for Fe, Mn, Ni, Cu, Cd, and Pb. The observed differences resulted from the different quality of the intake water as well as from different materials used to build internal installations and their age and technical condition. The analyzed tap water was characterized by physical and chemical stability. However, the water did not meet the guidelines for water biostability due to the increased content of biogenic substances.
... The properties and quality of tap water is important for health of not only human but also freshwater aquarium fish. Although tap water has been comprehensively analyzed in the EU region Dinelli et al. 2012;Flem et al. 2015), there have been no reports on tap water quality of other countries including Japan (Hori et al. 2021). No publications were also found that provide seasonal feature of the properties and quality of tap water, and how the properties and quality of tap water affect the growth and reproduction of freshwater aquarium fish. ...
The health of freshwater aquarium fish and their breeding success depend critically on the quality of tap water. In general, tap water in Japan is potable, although the properties of tap water vary among regions in Japan. The city of Niigata is located in the largest rice production region of Japan. We have faced challenges concerning the reproduction of freshwater aquarium fish in Niigata. To determine whether water properties and quality affect the reproduction of aquarium fish in Niigata, we investigated the chemical properties of water and raised zebrafish in water from three different sources, namely tap water of Niigata in May, artificial freshwater (i.e., prepared via reverse osmosis), and natural spring water of Gosen, to document any effects on their sexual maturation and reproduction. We found that the tap water of Niigata was not stable throughout a year (median electrical conductivity = 147.1 μS/cm; SD = 25.6), with springtime lower than the first quartile. We also found that low concentrations of four pesticides in the tap water have been detected in May (max. concentration in 2020, bromobutide 2,000 ng/L, butachlor 600 ng/L, pyraclonil 200 ng/L, ipfencarbazone 20 ng/L). Moreover, rearing zebrafish in tap water negatively influenced both fish growth and reproduction: The sex ratio of adults was male biased (proportion of F0 male 70.8%); the average total length (30.5 mm) and weight (182 mg) of F0 males was decreased; the GSI of F0 females (9.7%) was decreased; the fecundity (the mating success 58.7%; the number of F1 eggs 63.1) of adults was reduced. Rearing in artificial freshwater could improve these outcomes (the sex ratio 55.7%; the total length of F0 males 31.8 mm; the weight of F0 males 211 mg; the GSI of F0 females 11.7%; the mating success 72.6%; the number of F1 eggs 99.0), whereas rearing in natural spring water from Gosen could improve the sex ratio (56.3%) and the weight of F0 males (200 mg), but not the others. Therefore, artificial freshwater made via reverse osmosis should be used for breeding freshwater aquarium fish in rice production region like Niigata. Finally, our results demonstrate that the reproduction of freshwater aquarium fish can serve as a bioindicator of low levels of organic pollutants in tap water and thus provide a basis for evaluating the safety of tap water for human consumption.
... Generally, tap water sources include rivers, lakes, reservoirs, groundwater or a combination of them, depending on the locally available main water resources or longdistance water transfer projects [4]. After the natural water is taken by the waterworks, a series of treatment measures-involving coagulation, precipitation, filtration, disinfection, etc.-are applied to reduce the content of heavy metals, suspended solids, microorganisms and other substances [5,6]. Then, the treated water enters the water distribution system and is delivered through pipeline networks to individual users. ...
... The corrosion of the pipelines would lead to the release of large amounts of metal elements, which change the chemical composition of the outlet water as it is transported through the water supply system [26][27][28]. The decline in water quality after long-distance transportation through pipelines has often been reported in previous investigations [5,29]. ...
The health issues of urban tap water are of great concern in the context of sustainability challenges to the environmental quality of water and the security of the water supply. In this work, tap water from the main urban areas in Wuhan and surface water from the Yangtze River and the Hanjiang River were collected during summer (June) and winter (December), 2022. The concentrations of 10 heavy metals including Fe, Al, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Se, Cd, Cr and Pb were determined for water quality evaluation and health risk assessment. The results demonstrated that almost all of the tap water samples contained metal concentrations below the Chinese national standard limits for drinking water (GB 5749-2022). The risk of heavy metals in tap water to human health was evaluated, and the results showed that the total carcinogenic risk (TCR) was in the range of 10−6 and 10−4 and the hazard index (HI) was much lower than one in both summer and winter. The current tap water in Wuhan is generally in a relatively safe state and will not cause acute hazards or chronic diseases in the short term, but the long-term cancer risk is still noteworthy. The heavy metal pollution index (HPI) showed that the overall water quality of urban drinking water sources in Wuhan has been satisfactory, despite its slightly polluted state in winter. Pipeline corrosion was considered as one of the important sources of heavy metals in Wuhan tap water, which can explain, to a certain extent, the increase in the heavy metal concentrations of tap water outlets relative to the finished water reported by waterworks, such as Fe, Ni, Cd and Pb. This study has implications for the formulation of better urban water supply security management strategies and associated sustainability challenges.
... Very high levels of Li (521.64 μg/L to 735.35 μg/L) were detected in mineral water samples from Tibet, and were about 10 to 100 times higher than in other samples (ranging from undetected to 86.5 μg/ L for other origins). BMW water from France and Italy had higher calcium and magnesium contents than other origins, suggesting that European BMW is strongly influenced by limestone aquifers, which is consistent with previous studies (Dinelli et al., 2012). Mineral water originating from northern China (Qinghai and Jilin province) has a relatively high Na and K contents, reaching 77.66 mg/L and 9.59 mg/L, respectively. ...
A comprehensive study of 96 bottled mineral water (BMW) samples consisting of 21 of the most popular origins
and brands sourced from China (n = 38), France (n = 20), Italy (n = 10), New Zealand (n = 17) and Fiji (n = 12)
has been undertaken. The δ18O and δ13C of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), δ18O and δ2H of water, mineral
elements (Li, Na, Mg, K, Ca, Sr) and ions (Cl− , SO4 2− , F− , CO3 2− , HCO3 − ) were investigated and used for origin
traceability. The origin of BMW was confirmed by applying Fisher discriminant analysis (Fisher - DA) and
artificial neural network (ANN) models to these variables. δ18ODIC, δ13CDIC, δ18O, δ2H values of BMW showed
significant deviations with origin. Mineral elements and anions varied widely due to different regional geology
and hydrology characteristics. A discriminant model based on Fisher-DA showed that the identification accuracy
of mineral water from different origins was in the range of 81 % to 100 %, whereas the discriminant accuracy
was 100 % for the training samples and 96.0 % for the testing samples calculated by ANN. HCO3 − , NO3 − , δ2H, δ18O
and F− were the most important variables that characterized BMWs from different origins. Using a combination
of stable isotopes and different water chemical components, BMWs from China can be accurately distinguished
from other origins using multivariate statistical models.
... Frignani et al. (2005) and Lopes-Rocha et al. (2017a) focused, instead, on the narrow mud wedge along the Western Adriatic shelf. In the most proximal segment of the Po-Adriatic system, extensive previous work from the Po Plain has documented the relative impact of sourcerock composition and changes in particle size on trace-metal distribution (Amorosi et al., 2002(Amorosi et al., , 2019Bianchini et al., 2002;Curzi et al., 2006;Amorosi and Sammartino, 2007;Amorosi, 2012;Dinelli et al., 2012;Greggio et al., 2018). ...
... normalization factor (Covelli and Fontolan, 1997;Menon et al., 1998;Liaghati et al., 2003;Goodbred et al., 2014). Element ratios that were adopted for the discrimination of ultramafic versus non-ultramafic source-rock composition in Po-Adriatic sediments and that proved very effective in reducing the textural effect are Cr/Al 2 O 3 (Amorosi et al., 2002Lucchini et al., 2003;Curzi et al., 2006;Dinelli et al., 2007Dinelli et al., , 2012Amorosi, 2012;Ilijanić et al., 2014;Buscaroli et al., 2021), Cr/V (Amorosi and Sammartino, 2007;Dinelli et al., 2012;Amorosi et al., 2014) and Ni/Al 2 O 3 (Dinelli and Lucchini, 1999;Ilijanić et al., 2014;Greggio et al., 2018). These indices can be used almost interchangeably. ...
... normalization factor (Covelli and Fontolan, 1997;Menon et al., 1998;Liaghati et al., 2003;Goodbred et al., 2014). Element ratios that were adopted for the discrimination of ultramafic versus non-ultramafic source-rock composition in Po-Adriatic sediments and that proved very effective in reducing the textural effect are Cr/Al 2 O 3 (Amorosi et al., 2002Lucchini et al., 2003;Curzi et al., 2006;Dinelli et al., 2007Dinelli et al., , 2012Amorosi, 2012;Ilijanić et al., 2014;Buscaroli et al., 2021), Cr/V (Amorosi and Sammartino, 2007;Dinelli et al., 2012;Amorosi et al., 2014) and Ni/Al 2 O 3 (Dinelli and Lucchini, 1999;Ilijanić et al., 2014;Greggio et al., 2018). These indices can be used almost interchangeably. ...
The Po-Adriatic region offers an excellent case for reconstructing sediment provenance and transport pathways of a multi-sourced sediment-routing system. Through a comprehensive set of ∼1400 geochemical data, a model for provenance and sediment flux was built based on distinct compositional fingerprints of 53 fluvial systems and their comparison to coastal, shelf and deep-marine sediments. Geochemically unique catchment lithologies (mafic/ultramafic rocks, limestones and dolostones) were used as end-members to assess exclusive source-rock signatures. Following calibration with sedimentary facies, selected key elements and element ratios poorly sensitive to particle size (Ni/Cr, MgO, Ni/Al2O3, Cr/V, Ca/Al2O3 and Ce/V) were adopted as provenance indicators. The high-Ni and high-Cr source-rock signature of mafic/ultramafic rocks widely exposed in the Po River watershed and along the Albanian Dinarides contrasts markedly with the high-Ca (and locally high-Mg) geochemical composition of Eastern Alpine, Apennine, and Eastern Adriatic (Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia) river catchments, which are, instead, carbonate-rich and virtually ophiolite-free. Relatively high Ce values from Apulian river samples serve as a key marker for a minor, but very distinct sediment provenance from southern Apennine alkaline volcanic rocks.
Despite along-shore mixing and dilution with sediment sourced from other river catchments, the geochemical signature of Adriatic shelf muds primarily reflects composition of sediment eroded from the contiguous continental areas. Chromium-rich and nickel-rich detritus generated in mafic and ultramafic complexes of the Western Alps and conveyed through the Po River into the Adriatic Sea records a geochemical signal that can be traced downstream as long as 1000 km, from the Alpine zone of sediment production to the area of final deposition, offshore Apulia.
While longitudinal dispersion linked to the general cyclonic, counter-clockwise Adriatic circulation is prevailing along the Western Adriatic Sea, conspicuous detrital input from transversal pathways to the deep sea is revealed across the Eastern Adriatic shelf using heavy metals as provenance tracers. Estimates of fluvial sediment loads and compositional fingerprinting of fluvial, coastal and shelf sediments indicate that previously neglected ophiolite-rich successions of Albania represent a major sediment-conveyor to the offshore sinks (Southern Adriatic Deep and Mid-Adriatic Deep) through significant cross-shore and NNW-directed sediment transport in the Eastern Adriatic Sea. A cut-off value of the Ni/Cr ratio targeted around 0.8 represents an effective tool for the differentiation in marine sediments of Ni-rich (serpentine-rich) ophiolite detritus of Albanian origin from mafic/ultramafic sources of Alpine affinity. High trace-metal contents found within the Adriatic deep basin are mostly of natural origin and only minimally reflect metal contamination.
... In 2018, the percentage of samples with Al content in the range 110-150 µg/L rises rapidly in comparison to 2016 and 2017 and together with the samples having Al in the range 160-190 µg/L represents almost half (47.2%) of all test results [4]. Similar outcomes for elevated concentrations of Al in tap water were reported for European countries, such as Italy [12,13] and Spain [5], Nigeria in Africa [1] and the USA [25]. ...
Elevated concentrations of aluminium have been found at the outlets of the Drinking Water Treatment Plants (DWTPs) of Sofia city, Bulgaria and in separate sampling points in the water supply network. Cluster analysis is performed for multivariate data interpretation of the distribution of Al concentrations during 2019 at 19 water sampling points (2 DWTPs outlets and 17 points within the city water supply system). Although the concentration of aluminium in the outlet of the treatment plants differ significantly, both of them fall into the same cluster, as the concentrations during the year change in the same manner. The formed cluster of both the treatment plants and most of the studied sampling points indicate the mixed origin of the purified water and proves that the concentration of Al in tap water is dominated by the qualities and quantities from the different sources of the supplied water, rather than by the secondary processes in the network for areas with predominant steel and polyethylene (PE) pipes. A distinct exception are the areas with old asbestos cement pipelines where potential release of the metal from the cement affects the Al distribution in the water supply system.
... However, trace element content is profoundly influenced by the consumption of food and drinking water, particularly cereal and cereal-based foods and bottled drinking water [50]. In addition, Naples and its province present a typically volcanic profile; therefore, it is not uncommon to find geological formations containing elements such as As and Mn, which could be a source of metals for water supplies used for drinking and irrigation purposes [51,52]. ...
... This element can be found in varying amounts in foods. Italian tap water values of Li range from 5.1 to 60.8 µg/L [51]. Considering this data, a vegetarian diet-rich in grains and vegetables-would provide more Li compared to an animal protein-rich diet. ...
Macro and trace elements are important regulators of biological processes, including those ones linked to reproduction. Among them, Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Se, and Zn ensure normal spermatic functions. Hence, the aim of this study was to evaluate the concentrations of 26 macro and trace elements (Al, As, Ba, Be, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sb, Se, Sn, Sr, U, V, and Zn) in blood serum and also in semen of healthy young men, homogeneous for age, anthropometric characteristics, and lifestyle, living in three highly polluted areas in Italy. Furthermore, a comparison among three geographical areas was performed to highlight any difference in the investigated parameters and, overall, to speculate any correlations between chemical elements and semen quality. Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) among the three areas were found for each investigated element, in both semen and serum samples, where inter-area differences were more evident in semen than in blood serum, suggesting human semen as an early environmental marker. Considering the homogeneity of three cohorts, these differences could be due more to environmental conditions in the recruiting areas, suggesting that variations in those involved in reproductive-associated pathways can have an impact on male fertility. Nevertheless, more research is needed to evaluate threshold values for sperm dysfunction and male infertility. Actually, the role of different dietary intake and environmental exposure underlying the observed differences in the recruiting areas is under further investigation for the same cohort.
