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Map of coastal language families, languages, language groups and native title groups covering the Kimberley Island Biodiversity Survey area.
Context in source publication
Context 1
... recent years, Aboriginal people have formally defi ned themselves in terms of native title groups for the purpose of securing recognition of legal title through the Native Title Act 1993 (Cth). Native title groups are often composed of one or more language group whose members comprise a distinct Aboriginal society as well as a single native title community (Table 1, Figure 1). A list of language names for islands in the Kimberley Island Biodiversity Survey. ...
Citations
... 64 Tom Vigilante similarly concluded that most 'smokes' were defensive signals. 65 Thus Roth's and Spencer's curious denial of 'smoke language' might be due 'to the disinclination of the natives to yield up information in their possession'. 66 In ancient Greece and Rome, beacon messages were originally simple but eventually developed something similar to Morse code. ...
This essay reconstructs defensive/offensive mechanisms of Aboriginal communication networks and presents historical examples of their application as a means of resistance during Australia’s frontier wars. The principal focus is on smoke-signalling systems, especially in Queensland.
... In this research, both traditional owner groups observed that in the absence of custodial management wetlands experienced vegetation encroachment and the reduction of open water, reducing the wetlands' potential both as refugia and in satisfying cultural values, use and obligations. Wetland vegetation changes have also been observed in neighbouring areas after the decline of Aboriginal burning (Vigilante et al. 2013). ...
Historical and contemporary Indigenous wetland management influences wetland ecological character and conservation in ways not well recognised by western science and mainstream natural resource management. For example, the Australian government funds Aboriginal-led management of traditional lands, but Aboriginal knowledge is rarely enabled to critique, enrich or provide alternatives to conventional wetland management theory and practice. Emerging processes like the Multiple Evidence Base approach aim to foster synergies across different knowledge systems to enrich understanding of, and solutions for, environmental challenges. A starting point for such negotiations is the mobilisation of each knowledge base to foster mutual comprehension of shared knowledge around a subject. To assist in mobilising Aboriginal knowledge around wetland ecosystem management, we offer a case study of related Aboriginal beliefs, knowledge and practice. Based on oral histories and ongoing expressions, wetland management practices undertaken by two Kimberley Aboriginal groups in northern Western Australia form this article’s focus. We describe how and why these groups manage or rehabilitate wetlands, reflecting on ecosystem generation and conservation, and convergences or divergences with western science. We also identify barriers to the mobilisation of Aboriginal knowledge systems within contemporary land management programs, and opportunities to better foster Multiple Evidence Base negotiations.
... It is globally significant for its biodiversity (some unique), relatively intact ecosystems, and aesthetic and recreational values (Brown et al. 2016). The Kimberley coast is among only 4% of marine ecosystems in the world to have experienced 'very low impact' from humans (Halpern et al. 2008), and is an important refuge for many threatened species (Vigilante et al. 2013). ...
Scientists, Indigenous peoples, and local communities are increasingly seeking to combine their expertise to support sustainable management of social-ecological systems for diverse values, from local to global scales. In this paper we present an Indigenous-led approach to enable multiple evidence-based research, monitoring, and evaluation of the health of ‘Saltwater Country.’ This highlights the need to ensure knowledge can be shared, used, and co-developed to care for coastal and marine social-ecological systems within and across the Kimberley region of north-western Australia in an ethical and equitable manner. Structured yet fluid knowledge networks need to be negotiated and supported to enable Indigenous communities to implement this approach, which also requires coordinated institutional support and resourcing to produce useable knowledge that is easily translated into programs of action. We here present a process for regional-scale collaboration between Indigenous and local knowledge systems, western science, and other knowledge systems for the purpose of collaborative natural and cultural resource management and sustainable Indigenous futures.
... Islands not only provide ecological benefits to biodiversity, but also provide a wide array of economic benefits to humans; for example, in Australia nature based tourism industry is valued at AU$13 billion per annum (Moro et al. 2018), as well as other services important to human well-being, such as energy, freshwater, food, and traditional ecological knowledge (Wong et al. 2005;Vigilante et al. 2013;Tershy et al. 2015). Australia's first people (commonly referred to as Aboriginal people) have a long and deep connection to islands dating back upwards of 50,000 years, and predating the emergence of many of the smaller islands that appeared when sea levels rose approximately 6,000 years ago (Moro et al. 2018). ...
... Australia's first people (commonly referred to as Aboriginal people) have a long and deep connection to islands dating back upwards of 50,000 years, and predating the emergence of many of the smaller islands that appeared when sea levels rose approximately 6,000 years ago (Moro et al. 2018). Islands play an important part in their cultural heritage, with many islands playing significant roles in their Dreamtime stories (Broome 1982), holding a great significance and value for their culture and heritage (Vigilante et al. 2013). ...
Invasive species are major drivers of biodiversity loss and have a range of social and
economic impacts worldwide. The impacts of invasive species are particularly important
on islands, due to their isolated ecosystems, species naïveté, and higher endemism
rates, in comparison to continental areas of the same size. Historically, management
efforts have focused on controlling the impact of invasive species on remote
uninhabited islands. However, many threatened species occur on inhabited islands,
where some of them also have intrinsic cultural value for both local communities and
indigenous people. In recent decades, there has been an increasing interest from island
communities in the implementation of eradication programmes to protect local
ecosystems, economies, and cultural heritage. As the number and complexity of these
eradication programmes increase, natural resource managers face uncertainty in
prioritising the most appropriate management strategies that can maximise not only
conservation goals, but can also integrate local human population preferences and
economic considerations, in what has been referred to as “the new management
paradigm”.
In my PhD, I used participatory and modelling approaches to advance our ability to
address invasive species management challenges under uncertainty at a local scale,
focusing on the case study of on Minjerribah-North Stradbroke Island. In Chapter 2
(Cáceres-Escobar et al. in review), I aimed to prioritise the best strategies to control the
impacts of invasive species on Minjerribah-North Stradbroke Island for local
conservation practitioners to implement strategies that aligned with local communities’
preferences. To achieve this, I developed and implemented a framework to integrate
multi-stakeholder perspectives (here the natural resource managers, local communities
and the indigenous Quandamooka peoples) into a cost-benefit analysis to evaluate six
different co-developed management strategies to preserve the environmental and
cultural significance of the island, by controlling the impacts of European red foxes and
feral cats. I found that the best decisions when the budget is low are less cost-effective
than when the budget is high. According to the local management preferences, the
chosen strategy was only fox management under high management intensity on the
Island. In this work, I also highlighted the need for further research on feral cat
management alternatives.
In Chapter 3, in order to test the proposed co-developed strategies devised in Chapter
2, I developed and implemented a demographic model to estimate the feasibility and
cost-effectiveness of eradicating foxes from Minjerribah within a 3-year management
window proposed by local conservation practitioners. I found that a “high-intensity and
high investment” approach was the most cost-effective and efficient strategy to control
the impacts of red foxes within the proposed management window. In Chapter 4, I
implemented a novel approach that assessed possible outcomes of the implementation
of only red fox eradication or joint eradication of red foxes and feral cats. I found that the
safest strategy to maximise the benefits of local threatened and culturally relevant
species is a simultaneous eradication strategy of both red foxes and feral cats, as it did
not show any significantly negative effects on native populations.
Following the local scale work in Chapters 2-4, I collated reported densities of my focal
invasive species, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), from the Atlas of Living Australia and
scientific literature, to assess the challenges to develop National-scale management
strategies. In Chapter 5, I performed a literature review and examined the existing
information in the Atlas of Living Australia and scientific literature on red fox abundance.
I assessed the current datasets available to develop strategic management strategies
that improve the allocation of resources on a national scale. I found that despite 53,792-
recorded occurrences of red foxes in Australia, the available dataset was skewed
towards a reduced number of Bioregions and administrative areas in southeast
Australia, and that nearly three quarters of the available scientific literature were from
approximately 20 to 30 years ago. I highlight the need for new data, as the available
information might not represent the current trends of the extant of fox populations.
Updating the current information will improve our understanding of the underlying
processes that drive fox impacts, and help us develop threat maps that improve the
allocation of resources at a national scale.
However challenging, incorporating social perspectives and qualitative parameters into
quantitative approaches for addressing and managing invasive species can improve our
understanding of the local systems. It is important to understand how local socialcultural conditions and economic constraints affect the development and
implementation of invasive species management strategies. By implementing
participatory and modelling approaches, we can substantially improve and amend
management strategies before long-term commitments are taken. By understanding
local preferences, management expectations, and data availability, we can implement a bottom-up approach to develop better management strategies that capture local
aspects that can enhance the quality of national management.
... Indigenous engagement, collaboration and knowledge exchange were a fundamental component of this project. Indigenous knowledge and two-way communication between onground managers and western science is recognised and valued for conservation outcomes across the world (Berkes at al 2000;Drew 2005;Vigilante et al. 2013). In Australia, the value of these partners are displayed through the commitment of State, Territory and Commonwealth governments in programs such as land and sea ranger programs, Indigenous Protected Areas (IPAs) and cross border initiatives such as the Northern Australian Indigenous Land and Sea Alliance (NAILSMA). ...
Overview (Chapter 1)
The Kimberley coast remains a region of inadequate knowledge to understand the status of regional marine turtle stocks that face multiple contemporary pressures such as climate change, marine debris, coastal development and increasing visitation.
Existing knowledge reveals scattered information on the distribution and relative abundance of nesting turtles indicating that a systematic survey all sandy beaches for nesting turtles was required for a regional understanding. The spatial and temporal distribtion of nesitng is the minimum knowledge required to understand the impact of pressures and highlight key locations for management and ongoing monitoring. Previous genetic studies indicate multiple genetic stocks of marine turtles throughout Australian and south-east Asia with major sampling gaps in the Kimberley region resulting in unknown boundaries. It is recognised that within the Kimberley the endemic flatback turtle has summer nesting in the west and winter nesting in the east, yet it remains unknown if that pattern reflects incubation physiology determined by thermal conditions or different genetic stocks. The most widespread and influential pressure facing turtles in the Kimberley is climate change. Increased temperatures can skew sex ratios to predominately female, increase embryo mortality and potentially shift the distribution of nesting. Traditional and local knowledge is critical to comprehensive understanding of the environment and it is recognised that there is already existing turtle knowledge held by traditional onground managers and custodians in the Kimberley. For this reason, engagement, collaboration and joint planning was an important component of this project.
These major gaps of knowledge led to the development of four primary omponents in the WAMSI turtle study: 1) to map the distribution of nesting beaches across the Kimberley in space and time; 2) define nesting stocks of green and flatback turtles: 3) develop understanding of their thermal biology and the implications of climate change and 4) ensure Indigenous involvement through engagement, employment, participation, planning and training.
Distribution and Abundance (Chapter 2):
Near complete coverage of the Kimberley islands and coast was achieved in an aerial survey over eight to nine flight days for summer nesting season and again for winter nesting season in 2014. We captured >44,000 georeferenced aerial images to analyse and annotate with classifications of terrain type, and to quantify the visual evidence of crawl tracks or nesting depressions (body pits). These provided guidance for later verification by ground truth patrols in accessible areas. A GIS classification gave a priority ranking of turtle rookery beaches across the Kimberley. This information provided complimentary information to Traditional Owners about important turtle areas within their local areas and Indigenous Protected Areas (IPAs) and provided managers an overview of priority beaches for future study and monitoring.
Genetic studies (Chapter 3)
The Kimberley represents a major gap in understanding of population genetics of Australian marine turtles across the Kimberley bioregion partly due to the remoteness of nesting beaches. We planned and conducted field surveys to systematically sample these populations by dedicated field trips and opportunistic field samples. Rookeries are typically a focus of studies to determine breeding stocks whereas foraging grounds are a focus for mixed stocks analysis where multiple widely distributed turtle stocks can share feeding grounds. Sampling efforts are ongoing but sufficient samples have been collected from West Kimberley and East Kimberley flatback turtle rookeries and green turtles from the western Kimberley. The team sampled a strategic selection of field sites that included West Kimberley (summer flatbacks, summer greens), Northwest Kimberley (putative boundary for summer to winter flatbacks, summer greens), North Kimberley (winter flatbacks, winter greens, summer greens), and East Kimberly (winter flatbacks). The study aims were (1) to clarify genetically discrete population boundaries (= management units) for marine turtles in the Kimberley, (2), to identify any stock with breeding sites spanning state or regional boundaries, (3) to identify genetic markers unique to different management units and apply these to analyse the stock composition of turtles in harvest or feeding grounds.
Climate Change and thermal studies (Chapter 4)
Selected beaches were sampled for a thermal profile for green turtles and flatback turtles, with focus on summer
Marine Turtles
ii Kimberley Marine Research Program | Project 1.2.2
and winter nesting seasons for flatbacks that overlap with green turtles. Fresh eggs were collected and transported to the UWA laboratory to determine incubation conditions for sex determination and sex ratios. Portable weather stations installed at five beaches spanning the Kimberley recorded regional climate data that influence field incubation. Multiple thermal data-loggers at a strategic selection of field sites that included Eighty Mile Beach (summer flatbacks), Lacepede Islands (summer flatbacks, summer greens, winter greens), Deception Bay (winter flatbacks, summer greens), West Governor Island (winter flatbacks), King Sound (winter flatbacks), Cassini Island (winter flatbacks, unconfirmed summer flatbacks, winter greens, summer greens), and Cape Domett (winter flatbacks).These data enable the development of predictive numerical models to forecast future incubation conditions under changing climate conditions and the potential effects on sex ratios and mortality.
Traditional Knowledge (Chapter 5)
We planned and budgeted for Indigenous engagement, participation and employment in the project from the beginning. We met independently and repeatedly with eleven Traditional Owner (TO) groups over four years that host significant turtle resources across the Kimberley coast and offshore islands. We made dedicated planning trips prior to any field work to ensure that shared goals could be achieved.
We learned of traditional knowledge within groups and reciprocated by sharing results from a scientific overview. Educational products have included posters, seminars, and support of TO participation in national and regional conferences.
A central aim of all field trips was knowledge exchange with rangers and TOs and delivery of hands-on training in marine turtle techniques to build capacity for ranger groups for ongoing monitoring opportunities. We worked on turtle species identification, both in the water - from visual or behavioural characteristics - and on land - from beach track patterns, depth of body pits excavations and nest placement in relation to vegetation and dune crest. Other techniques practiced included how to excavate nests, evaluate hatching success by sorting hatched shells and undeveloped eggs, examine live or dead hatchlings, and record on data sheet.
The rangers shared cultural background about the coast and islands and relevant information from their previous experiences on their country.
Implications for management
The four components of this project identified key information with management implications.
The nesting turtle distribution component of the project revealed widespread marine turtle nesting across the Kimberley with species and seasonal differences. This information has already been used in the Kimberley Marine Park Planning process and will continue to be used during document review processes. This spatial and relative density information is extremely important for any proposed activities in the Kimberley including coastal development. The information was also widely distributed to local Indigenous groups and provides local and regional context to support local management. Surveys of places of known high management value which included summer nesting green turtles at the Lacepede Islands, summer nesting flatback turtles at Eighty Mile Beach, and winter nesting flatbacks at Cape Domett reiterated their previously known importance. These places plus many additional sites become priorities when planning future work or long-term monitoring. The Cape Domett and Eighty Mile Beach flatback rookeries are managed in conjunction with adjacent Marine Park Management Plans and have been monitored annually since 2006. The Lacepede Islands were surveyed annually between 1987-2002.
The genetic component of the project defined flatback and green turtle stocks in the Kimberley. Stocks are the key unit used for management in Australia and guided by the Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia. For flatback turtles six regions were differentiated from one another based on rookeries sampled from the Pilbara region, 80 Mile Beach, Eco Beach, King Sound, northwest Kimberley and northeast Kimberley. The degree of differentiation among these stocks indicates that genetic exchange is limited which supports the current management of managing turtles at a stock level. Green turtle samples were reanalysed with additional samples and the results confirm previous findings that there is genetic exchange among green turtle rookeries along coastal parts of Western Australia, but little exchange among offshore atolls, or between offshore and coastal rookeries. Nevertheless, exchange is not complete, indicating that Pilbara and Kimberley rookeries have a degree of demographic independence. Genetic affinities with Cassini Island are unclear due to a small sample size. Previously identified management units that were based on mtDNA were supported by the SNP data set.
The climate change impact component showed marked variation in the temperatures of beaches used for nesting by marine turtles in the Kimberley region and highlights the need for managers to manage populations at the level of individual rookeries. At a regional scale, retaining resilience is a key strategy, which can be achieved by protecting a broad nesting distribution across all habitat types, latitudinal ranges and including mainland and island rookeries. Localised management for female-biased sex-ratios and high mortality at particular nesting beaches could include artificial shading of natural nests (via shade cloth or vegetation plantings), or relocation of egg clutches to cooler sites or beaches. However, before such interventions are undertaken it will be prudent to collect further empirical data on the sex ratios of turtles hatching at major rookeries.
Two-way knowledge and the merging of western science, Traditional knowledge and local knowledge is essential for continuing to improve our understanding of marine turtles across the Kimberley. The WAMSI turtle project provides a substantial increase in knowledge but future projects and long-term monitoring are key for ongoing management.
Key residual knowledge gaps and future work
The following summarises key knowledge gaps and potential for future work in each component of this project.
The turtle distribution component was spatially comprehensive but restricted to two time periods: January and August. This means that we potentially have gaps for nesting populations where the nesting peak falls outside of this period. This is likely to be true for hawksbill turtles which have been observed in the Pilbara and the Northern Territory nesting in the spring. Future hawksbill surveys should be more spatially restricted to the region of Jones Island and Vansitart Bay in Wunambal Gaambera country and Sir Graham Moore Island and Scorpion island in Balanggara Country. Track evidence of nesting hawksbill turtles was observed through onground surveys in Vansittart Bay but samples should be acquired for genetic analysis to enable these turtles to be assigned to a stock. The survey flights did not collect data on the sparse olive ridley nesting known to occur in Dambimangari Country. Future olive ridley surveys should be incorporated into boat or aerial Marine Park surveys of Camden Sound with particular emphasis on Deception Bay and Smokey Bay increase our understanding of this species. Although not part of the WAMSI distribution and abundance study; we offer observations of potential population threats that need better quantification and include dingo and goanna predation on mainland populations and levels of marine debris.
The genetics component of the project indicated that future additional sampling and genetic analyses of flatback turtles across the Northern Kimberley using mitochondrial DNA could help clarify the boundaries between King Sound, NW and NE Kimberley populations. For green turtles, additional sampling of rookeries in the north Kimberley is needed to complete our understanding of genetic affinities. However, there is enough independence of the Pilbara and Kimberley green turtles to warrant them being managed as different stocks. Future research should focus on identifying the origins of turtles at foraging grounds around Western Australia, whether through genetic mixed stock analysis or through the analysis of telemetry data where sampling of foraging grounds is not possible.
The climate change component identified that future management should focus on regular monitoring of sand temperatures at selected beaches alongside periodic measurement of the sex ratios and hatching success of nests, to further validate the predictive models developed in this project. The models can then be used to evaluate the impact of management options, and to identify the rookeries that are most likely to be key recruitment sites under warmer future climates. Under extreme warming scenarios, these key sites could be much further south than the current nesting distribution.
Traditional knowledge is key to future research and management. Future research and management projects should be conducted collaboratively with agreed objectives, implementation activities and outputs. Consideration should be given to how new knowledge can be integrated into management after project completion. Regional scale objectives should be considered, and projects developed that can provide regional scale and turtle stock relevant indicators of population condition. The WAMSI Turtle project allocated funds from the beginning to include Indigenous participation and collaboration. Left over funds for this component were transferred to Kimberley Saltwater Science Project (changed to Indigenous Saltwater Advisory Group) to ensure that discussions, planning and implementation of turtle projects continues beyond WAMSI Kimberley Node.
... being burned or being used to make smoke during ceremonial events, and was also burnt during daily rituals (Table 2). Whilst most references to these activities did not explain their significance, one contemporary source referred to the ritualistic use of smoke (generated by either green leaves or seaweed being placed on top of a fire) to 'eliminate strange scents from the visitors which allows the country to recognise them' (Vigilante et al. 2013). This smoking is analogous to the Australian Aboriginal contemporary and historical burning of Eucalyptus spp. ...
Global demand for seaweed has increased dramatically over recent decades and the potential for seaweed aquaculture to address issues around food security and climate-change mitigation are being recognised. Australia is a global hotspot for seaweed biodiversity with a rich, diverse Indigenous history dating back 65,000 years, including an extensive traditional knowledge of Australian natural resources. In our present review of archival literature, we explored the contemporary and historical uses and cultural significance of seaweeds to Indigenous Australians. We found records of seaweed use by Indigenous Saltwater Australians (Australian Aboriginal peoples from coastal areas across the nation who are the Traditional Owners/Guardians and custodians of the lands and waters characterised by saltwater environment) for a variety of purposes including cultural activities, ceremonial activities, medicinal uses, clothing, cultural history, food, fishing, shelter and domestic uses. Species-specific records were rarely recorded (and/or accurately translated) in the archival literature, with the exception of the use of the fucoid bull kelp, Durvillaea potatorum, which was prevalent. Our research is a step forward in the important task of recovering and conserving Indigenous Australian knowledge and customary traditions surrounding coastal resource use. Unlocking this knowledge creates opportunities for the continuance and revitalization of traditional customary practises that may enable innovative Indigenous business activities and product creation, based around food, sustainable natural-fibre technologies and health. Such research also has the potential to enhance a developing Australian seaweed industry by guiding species selection, preparation, use and sustainable resource management. We recommend our findings are used to inform the direction and locations of further research conducted in conjunction with Indigenous coastal communities in Australia’s temperate regions, to explore in more detail the Indigenous Australian’s historical heritage associated with coastal seaweed resources and their uses.
... In WA, many of the islands from Exmouth Gulf north to the Kimberley are significant for Traditional Owners for hunting and cultural purposes (Vigilante et al. 2013;Abbott and Wills 2016). From Shark Bay south, islands had no value to Indigenous people. ...
... Of these, only 145 islands are at least 100 ha in area and just 20 are > 1000 ha; only 12 are reserved for conservation (CCWA, 2010). Coastal aboriginal people possessed watercraft in this region so these islands have a history of seasonal occupation and use (Vigilante et al., 2013). With a few exceptions, these islands have remained largely free of invasive species and are less altered by contemporary fire regimes than the adjacent mainland (McKenzie et al., 2009;Gibson and McKenzie, 2012). ...
... Two sites were needed to access the environmental variation of the largest islands. Wanjina-Wunggurr Uunguu, Wanjina-Wunggurr Dambimangari, Balanggarra and Bardi-Jawi native title determinations and the Mayala native title claim together cover all of the islands sampled (Vigilante et al., 2013). Accordingly, we gained approval from Traditional Owners (TOs) to access the islands, and TOs joined the field teams. ...
The near-pristine continental-shelf islands along the remote and rugged Kimberley coast of north-western Australia are important natural refuges that have been isolated from many of the threatening processes affecting the adjacent mainland. Between 2007 and 2014, 27 of the largest of these islands were sampled for non-volant mammals, bats, reptiles, birds and vascular plants. Here, we evaluate the congruent patterns in species richness and composition among the taxonomic groups and relate these to island-wide attributes. We consider the conservation implications of the observed biodiversity patterns in the context of species replacement, nestedness and the minimum number of islands required to represent all species. While the species-area relationship was consistently supported, the effect of island isolation was observed for the non-volant mammals only. Environmental heterogeneity and spatial arrangement of islands strongly influenced species compositional patterns. We show that this pattern was largely due to species replacement among islands, rather than nestedness. These patterns reflect the greater diversity of regionally endemic species that are largely restricted to the more mesic and extensively rocky islands; whereas the drier islands typically support more widespread generalists. The combined measures of biodiversity patterns we observed indicate that all of the sampled islands have high conservation value. The conservation implications of the apparent lack of nestedness in this island system have relevance for other similar systems including fragmented landscapes.
... We expected there would be differences in fire activity and rainforest distribution between islands and mainland, because islands have been subject to fewer human ignitions due to infrequent visitation in recent times (Vigilante et al., 2013) and the sea provides a natural fire break from surrounding landscape fires. To test this, we compared rainforest density grid cells on islands and the mainland. ...
The small rainforest fragments found in savanna landscapes are powerful, yet often overlooked, model systems to understand the controls of these contrasting ecosystems. We analyzed the relative effect of climatic variables on rainforest density at a subcontinental level, and employed high-resolution, regional-level analyses to assess the importance of landscape settings and fire activity in determining rainforest density in a frequently burnt Australian savanna landscape. Estimates of rainforest density (ha/km2) across the Northern Territory and Western Australia, derived from preexisting maps, were used to calculate the correlations between rainforest density and climatic variables. A detailed map of the northern Kimberley (Western Australia) rainforests was generated and analyzed to determine the importance of geology and topography in controlling rainforests, and to contrast rainforest density on frequently burnt mainland and nearby islands. In the northwestern Australian, tropics rainforest density was positively correlated with rainfall and moisture index, and negatively correlated with potential evapotranspiration. At a regional scale, rainforests showed preference for complex topographic positions and more fertile geology. Compared with mainland areas, islands had significantly lower fire activity, with no differences between terrain types. They also displayed substantially higher rainforest density, even on level terrain where geomorphological processes do not concentrate nutrients or water. Our multi-scale approach corroborates previous studies that suggest moist climate, infrequent fires, and geology are important stabilizing factors that allow rainforest fragments to persist in savanna landscapes. These factors need to be incorporated in models to predict the future extent of savannas and rainforests under climate change.
... First, we assume that important food and raw material plants are likely to have been depicted and that a list of common food plants will act as a useful initial guide for candidate species in the rock art record. Crawford (1982) and Karadada et al. (2011) describe 96 and 106 plant foods respectively from Kalumburu and Wunambal Gaambera country in the north Kimberley; and Vigilante et al. (2013) record 127 plant food species from the north Kimberley islands. Each study notes a more select group of preferred plants that were regarded as prized or "first class food" (Petri, 2011:23). ...
The orthodox notion of agriculture cumulatively and inevitably developing from foragers' gathering practices is increasingly untenable. Recent archaeological, botanical and genetic research from Asia and Australia show precocious manipulation of plant resources that continue for millennia within a forager ideology and practice without culminating in ‘agriculture’. Australia's Kimberley is an especially productive research region with a wide range of environmental niches on a topographically varied landscape that has had human settlement spanning over the last 50,000 years. Previously characterised as ‘foragers’ until contact with travellers from Indonesia and then Europeans over the last few hundred years; new research questions this simplistic characterisation of Aboriginal people, and suggests instead a particularly complex and enduring set of people-plant relationships. This complexity is given material witness in the form of Kimberley rock art, which stands out globally in having an enormous body of direct and indirect depictions of plants, including: grasses, trees, tubers; pigment-soaked plants imprinted on rock shelter walls; anthropomorphism of plants; and plant-based material culture such as digging sticks, dilly bags, and wood-hafted stone axe. These are more than simple illustrations of a forager economic base. Instead, rock art is a primary record of long-term sophisticated physical and symbolic manipulation of plants that fits neither into the simplistic categories of ‘foraging’ or of ‘agriculture’. Rather, we have a society in which people actively chose not to pursue orthodox agriculture while according plants a central place in their lives.
