Map indicating the location of the five RNCs used in the measurements.

Map indicating the location of the five RNCs used in the measurements.

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Article
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The aim of this paper is to present results on output power level distributions of radio base stations (RBSs) and user devices connected to a wideband code division multiple access-based third generation (3G) mobile communication network in India and relate the results to realistic human exposure to radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic field (EMF)...

Citations

... The assessment of realistic EMF exposure to the uplink of a smartphone thus requires knowledge of the duty cycle. Time-averaged output powers of user devices have been investigated for GSM [4], 3G [5,6], 4G [7], and 5G [8] devices. Furthermore, Gati et al. [9] investigated the duality between UL local and DL whole-body exposure, and Joseph et al. [10] determined the duty cycle for Wireless Local-Area Networks (WLANs) for several data and voice applications and in a variety of environments. ...
Article
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In this presented study, we measured in situ the uplink duty cycles of a smartphone for 5G NR and 4G LTE for a total of six use cases covering voice, video, and data applications. The duty cycles were assessed at ten positions near a 4G and 5G base-station site in Belgium. For Twitch, VoLTE, and WhatsApp, the duty cycles ranged between 4% and 22% in time, both for 4G and 5G. For 5G NR, these duty cycles resulted in a higher UL-allotted time due to time division duplexing at the 3.7 GHz frequency band. Ping showed median duty cycles of 2% for 5G NR and 50% for 4G LTE. FTP upload and iPerf resulted in duty cycles close to 100%.
... The correspondence network should be viewed as all in all to completely consider different unwavering quality records. (15) To completely and totally mirror the running condition of the correspondence organization. ...
Article
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Confronting the undeniably complicated versatile correspondence organization, knowledge is the advancement heading of organization versatile improvement innovation later on. Portable correspondence information is a significant part representing things to come data society. AI calculation is embraced in the versatile improvement plot, which can facilitate different enhancement goals as per the progressions of climate and state and understand the ideal boundary arrangement. Canny portable terminal hardware is turning out to be increasingly well known. The combination and advancement of social, portable and area administrations make the conventional informal organization easily change to versatile correspondence organization. AI is a part of man-made consciousness. Its examination objective is to construct a framework which can advance a few guidelines from information and apply them to the resulting information handling. In light of chart hypothesis, this paper tackles the issue of correspondence network information really, and concentrates on the calculation of huge information examination in view of AI.
... The results are available for 2G to 4G systems [5] - [8] and in a number of other investigations. The ratio mean to maximum emission power is in the range from 1 for GSM systems with only one frequency carrier [5] (because there is no power control on the first carrier) and 65% or less when there are two or more frequency carriers also in GSM systems [6] over 20-26% for 3G [7] to only 2.2% or even less than 1% for 4G systems [8]. The results for 3G and 4G systems follow after a great number of measurements in various propagation conditions and with different traffic levels. ...
Article
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In this paper we consider two random variables in a cell in the network of mobile users. The first random variable (RV) is the distance of active mobile user from a base station. The second RV is emission power for the random active user if the control of emission power exists. RV emission power is dependent RV of the first RV. That’s why the calculations of mean values for these RVs differ one from the other. The first RV depends only on the users’ density area distribution. The second RV depends on the signal attenuation value in the considered environment. It is proved that, in real conditions, emission power to a user at the mean value of distance from a base station is always lower than mean value of emission power to a user. The difference between these two power values increases as the signal attenuation coefficient increases. These two values are calculated for three characteristic user density distributions in a cell. The results are verified by original computer simulation programs.
... This was also assumed in the study of van Wel et al. 20 , where it was further explained that 2G mobile phones contributed more than 3G devices to whole-body exposure. Huang and Wiart 21 showed that the global EI reduced from 3 to 4G cellular systems, although the transmitted median power from mobile devices is similar for the two network generations 22,23 . ...
Article
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Owing to the advancement of wireless technologies, there is a strong public perception of increasing exposure to Radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMF). The aim of this study is to determine the evolution of EMF in the environment, and consequently, human exposure to them, over a period of about two decades, spanning from the end of 2003 until February 2022. The study is based on data collected by two non-ionizing radiation monitoring networks in Greece. The networks consist of fixed EMF sensors that register the RMS electric field value every 6 min, on a 24 h basis. We used the Seasonal–Trend decomposition method using (LOESS), known as the STL method to decompose the time series into trend, seasonal, and noise components. Additionally, since the sensors include frequency filters for separating the cellular frequencies, the recorded data were used to identify the exposure contribution by cellular networks in comparison to other EMF sources. The study indicates that RF-EMF do not explicitly decrease or increase but rather fluctuate over time. Similarly, the contribution of mobile cellular networks to the total field change over time.
... The exposure to RF-EMFs has been analysed for various transfer protocols (2G to 5G) and for the technical features of the corresponding HHD (Table 7) [35,36,38,[41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48]. TDs work in the data transfer mode and are not used for voice calls. ...
Article
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Every year, approximately 3% of cats and dogs are lost. In addition to passive methods for identifying pets, radiofrequency tracking devices (TDs) are available. These TDs can track a pet’s geographic position, which is transmitted by radio frequencies. The health risk to the animals from continuous exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) was reviewed. Fourteen out of twenty-one commercially available TDs use 2G, 3G, or 4G mobile networks, and the others work with public frequencies, WLAN, Bluetooth, etc. The exposure of pets to RF-EMFs was assessed, including ambient exposure (radios, TVs, and base stations of mobile networks), exposure from indoor devices (DECT, WLAN, Bluetooth, etc.), and the exposure from TDs. The exposure levels of the three areas were found to be distinctly below the International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) reference levels, which assure far-reaching protection from adverse health effects. The highest uncertainty regarding the exposure of pets was related to that caused by indoor RF-emitting devices using WLAN and DECT. This exposure can be limited considerably through a reduction in the exposure time and an increase in the distance between the animal and the RF-emitting device. Even though the total RF-EMF exposure level experienced by pets was found to be below the reference limits, recommendations were derived to reduce potential risks from exposure to TDs and indoor devices.
... The exposure level remained under the ICNIRP limit. This is in line with other experimental studies based on measurements recorded for operational mobile networks, which have highlighted that for 2G, 3G, and 4G systems, a base station's output power rarely approaches the theoretical maximum [Colombi et al., 2013;Joshi et al., 2015]. ...
... The exposure level remained under the ICNIRP limit. This is in line with other experimental studies based on measurements recorded for operational mobile networks, which have highlighted that for 2G, 3G, and 4G systems, a base station's output power rarely approaches the theoretical maximum [Colombi et al., 2013;Joshi et al., 2015]. ...
Article
As industrialized countries race to install and deploy 5G networks, some countries have taken the lead and already have operational 5G networks in place. South Korea is among these. In this study, we measured exposure to electromagnetic fields in South Korea to evaluate the relative contribution of 5G as compared with other frequencies such as 2G, 3G, and 4G. Results show that the emission of 5G contributes about 15% to total telecommunications emissions. The highest levels were observed in the vicinity of 5G antennas and remain below the limits set by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP).
... A tecnologia 3G possibilitou a transformação de celulares em smartphones, oferecendo uma velocidade de downlink máximas de até 2 Mbps e opera a uma largura de banda da operadora de 1,25 MHZ. A potência de transmissão no aparelho é limitada a um máximo de 0.25 Watts [20][21][22]. ...
Technical Report
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Os telefones emitem radiações eletromagnéticas não ionizantes da faixa das micro-ondas, que quando incidem sobre o corpo humano podem ser prejudiciais a saúde humana. O presente estudo tem como objetivo determinar os efeitos fisiológicos que podem se manifestar no ser humano, por ação da radiação eletromagnética causada pelo uso de telefone, em época de confinamento. Foi elaborado e aplicado um questionário a 90 pessoas até a faixa etária de 50 anos de idade. O estudo mostrou que a radiação eletromagnética emitida pelo telefone durante um período de uso constante, causa insónia, dor de cabeça, tonturas, irritabilidade, dificuldades de concentração, dor de ouvidos e dos olhos. Palavras-chave: Radiação eletromagnética, telefones, confinamento.
... Similarly for the 3G network, the power output was found to be~2 dB higher on average in rural areas compared with urban areas [18]. The output power from mobile phone devices on the 3G network was also found to be on average lower when compared with the 2G network [19][20][21]. ...
Article
Full-text available
In many epidemiological studies mobile phone use has been used as an exposure proxy for radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure. However, RF-EMF exposure assessment from mobile phone use is prone to measurement errors limiting epidemiological research. An often-overlooked aspect is received signal strength levels from base stations and its correlation with mobile phone transmit (Tx) power. The Qualipoc android phone is a tool that provides information on both signal strength and Tx power. The phone produces simultaneous measurements of Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI), Reference Signal Received Power (RSRP), Received Signal Code Power (RSCP), and Tx power on the 3G and 4G networks. Measurements taken in the greater Melbourne area found a wide range of signal strength levels. The correlations between multiple signal strength indicators and Tx power were assessed with strong negative correlations found for 3G and 4G data technologies (3G RSSI −0.93, RSCP −0.93; 4G RSSI −0.85, RSRP −0.87). Variations in Tx power over categorical levels of signal strength were quantified and showed large increases in Tx power as signal level decreased. Future epidemiological studies should control for signal strength or factors influencing signal strength to reduce RF-EMF exposure measurement error.
... Several studies used network measurements of power levels [13], [14] to make conclusions on average exposure levels, but did not combine exposure from base stations and mobile phones, nor took into account the actual SAR values for population and usage. In most recent studies concerning 5G the focus is on the distribution of power in the downlink (spatio-temporal distribution of base station transmit power), so the power density is used to quantify exposure [15]- [17]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Two outdoor base station macrocell/microcell topologies in operational Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) and Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service (UMTS) networks are compared with respect to average Electromagnetic Field (EMF) exposure over population in an area. A novel joint metric is used, accounting for exposure from both base stations and user equipment. The demonstrated method tends to use as much data as possible that can be extracted from various network systems, for the exact time of measurements or on long-term basis, with the aim of identifying the potential for EMF-awareness of future networks. The reduction of total exposure with the introduction of the microcell layer is shown using the proposed method with experimental measurements and compared by mobile network technologies. The introduction of the micro layer brought reduction to total population exposure of 84.6%, in the micro base station coverage area, mostly due to user device exposure reduction in GSM. UMTS user device exposure reduction was even more pronounced, 97.8%, but having less impact on overall exposure, contributing only 1%. Even with the increase in exposure originating from base stations, the reduction of total exposure was visible over the macro area as well, measuring 2.22%. The uncertainties of the evaluation method are identified and usage of advanced tools and methods is proposed to mitigate them.