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7 Magnetic volume susceptibility and the S-ratio (proxy for magnetite/hematite) are plotted as a function of stratigraphy and correlated to the isotope record from Greenland ice cores (North GRIP Members 2004). The enhancement of magnetic minerals in the cave sediments causes higher values in magnetic susceptibility and an increase of relative magnetite concentration, reflecting warmer and more humid climatic conditions (Graphic by U. Hambach)
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The site of Hunas is a cave ruin, filled with bedded sediments up to the roof. About 20 m sediments from the top down were
excavated and yielded Middle Paleolithic artifacts as well as numerous faunal remains, including Macaca. With a single human molar, the site is one of the rare Neanderthalian localities in Germany. New TIMS-U/Th dating of spele...
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Following the precedence already established during the INQUA Congress in 1932, the Middle/Upper (Late) Pleistocene boundary is defined at the base of the Last Interglacial, the Eemian Stage. It is proposed that a high-resolution core sequence from the Amsterdam Terminal (the Eemian Stage parastratotype) should constitute the Global Stratotype Sect...
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... However, most of the taxonomic attributions are based on the chronology of the specimens, with only subtle differences recognized between M. sylvanus subspecies (Szalay and Delson, 1979;Delson, 1980;Alba et al., 2019). Indeed, fossil remains of M. s. florentina are considered larger than those of M. s. prisca, but close to extant specimens of M. s. sylvanus (Rook et al., 2001); whereas specimens of M. s. pliocena are nearly identical to those of M. s. florentina, except for slightly wider cheek teeth in the latter (Delson, 1980). Given the lack of adequate diagnostic features, several attributions do not go beyond the species level (Montoya et al., 1999;Zapfe, 2001). ...
... Most of the Italian fossil primates were described from the 1870s to the beginning of the 1900s (Gervais, 1859;Cocchi, 1872;Forsyth Major, 1872a, b, 1875, 1914Ottolenghi, 1898;Seguenza, 1902Seguenza, , 1907Merciai, 1907;Portis, 1917). Nevertheless, this mammalian group was almost forgotten by Italian paleontologists during the last century, and as recently as in the last decades, only a few studies have been published (Belli et al., 1991;Rook et al., 2001;Mazza et al., 2005;Rook & O'Higgins, 2005;Rook, 2009;Zoboli et al., 2016;Bona et al., 2016). ...
... Except for M. majori, the Italian Plio-Pleistocene record of macaques has been poorly investigated (Gentili et al., 1998;Rook, 2009). The Pliocene macaque from Villafranca d'Asti has been tentatively assigned to M. s. prisca (Rook et al., 2001), whereas the fossil remains from the Early Pleistocene are generally ascribed to M. s. florentina, from Italian sites including Barberino del Mugello, Monte Peglia, Pietrafitta, and Valdarno Superiore (Rook, 1997;Gentili et al., 1998;SOM Table S1). Many fossils recorded from the Middle Pleistocene sites of the Italian Peninsula are commonly referred to Macaca sylvanus ssp., but seldom described in detail (SOM Table S1). ...
... Fossil/climate modelling suggest there was an excellent chance of finding macaques across mainland Europe during the Last Glacial Maximum (Elton and O'Regan 2014), which is within the timeframe for obtaining human European paleogenomes (Fu et al. 2016). However, the youngest fossils actually found to date are~70-50 kyo from southern Europe and Germany (Mazza et al. 2005;Castaños et al. 2011;Rosendahl et al. 2011), which may make any aDNA extraction difficult using existing material. The cause of the extinction has been primarily attributed to climatic effects on vegetation, but unlike Asian species of macaques, Barbary macaques are negatively impacted by human occupation (Ménard 2003), so the impact of some kind of resident Homo species such as Neanderthals may have also played some role (Rosendahl et al. 2011) (AMH likely did not enter Europe before Barbary macaques went extinct in the region). ...
... However, the youngest fossils actually found to date are~70-50 kyo from southern Europe and Germany (Mazza et al. 2005;Castaños et al. 2011;Rosendahl et al. 2011), which may make any aDNA extraction difficult using existing material. The cause of the extinction has been primarily attributed to climatic effects on vegetation, but unlike Asian species of macaques, Barbary macaques are negatively impacted by human occupation (Ménard 2003), so the impact of some kind of resident Homo species such as Neanderthals may have also played some role (Rosendahl et al. 2011) (AMH likely did not enter Europe before Barbary macaques went extinct in the region). As the only known recent primate in Europe, obtaining aDNA from some of these ancient European macaques would be of interest for examining their long-term population dynamics and how they may have interacted with archaic humans, as well as help advise conservation efforts for extant Barbary macaques in North Africa that are currently in serious decline (IUCN lists them as endangered). ...
The field of paleogenomics is revolutionizing our understanding of a variety of species, including humans, dogs, horses, and even extinct mammoths. Yet, despite sequencing over 1,000 anatomically modern and archaic human ancient genomes, there has yet to be a single paleogenome for any nonhuman primate. In this review I outline the problems facing the application of paleogenomics to nonhuman primates. The major issue is that primates are predominantly found in regions of the world that are hot and humid and have acidic soil conditions, such as tropical rainforests, where DNA preservation is poor. I then identify multiple possible directions for future research that focus on questions that could be addressed based on the existing paleontological record from the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. One of these, the study of extinct lemurs, has already produced results using ancient mitogenomes that have challenged existing ideas of the lemur phylogeny based on morphology. A similar process of anthropogenic-mediated extinction could potentially be studied in the case of monkeys that once resided in Caribbean. In addition, there are also possibilities to learn more about the past history and subsequent local extinction of macaques in Europe and apes on mainland Asia during the Late Pleistocene.
... The biggest part of this collection is from the Zoolithenhöhle near Burggaillenreuth (Fig. 19.1). Another big part of the vertebrate collections derives from Hunas, near Pommelsbrunn (Rosendahl et al. 2011). The Hunas excavation commenced in 1956 and continued with interruptions until 2016. ...
Palaeontological collections at Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen comprise more than 50,000 specimens mostly of Jurassic marine invertebrates and Pleistocene mammals. Ten percent of the collection material is digitized and available through the institute’s mySQL database and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Invertebrate collections are mostly used for teaching whereas there is active research on the palaeoecology of vertebrates.
... Currently, the species is confined to the westernmost part of North Africa. Its phylogenetic position , basal to all the other macaques (Morales and Melnick 1998), and the fossil presence of macaques throughout northern Africa and Europe during the Last Glacial Maximum— with last occurrence dates of ~25k b.p. and ~80 b.p. for sites in Germany and Spain, respectively (Alba et al. 2011; Rosendahl et al. 2011) clearly confirms its status as a " relict species. " It is also one of a small group of primates that has populations living in areas where, for significant part of the year, the temperatures drop into single digits, and snowfall occurs regularly. ...
... In southeastern Bavaria, the site of Hunas has produced an isolated lower right molar, possibly an M 3, from layer F2 and in direct association with Pleistocene fauna and Middle Paleolithic artifacts (Alt et al., 2006). 7 A speleotherm at the base of the deposits is dated to 76-79 ka by TIMS-U/Th (Alt et al., 2006;Rosendahl et al., 2011). The tooth is younger than this date range, but it is not possible to specify how much younger. ...
Central European evidence has proven invaluable to our understanding of modern human origins. Important early discoveries such as Feldhofer and Krapina have continued to offer new insights on Neandertal biology and lifeways, as have large samples of early modern humans. More recently, the discoveries at Vindija Cave and sites in Romania have provided more information on the period and process of the Neandertal – modern transition. New dating techniques andtheir direct application to fossil remains haveprovided more chronological clarity. . The genetic revolution, including the sequencing of the Neandertal genomehas shifted our field’s theoretical focus twice: 1) from a perspective that favored overall regional continuity to one of complete replacement and 2) from complete replacement to a more nuanced understanding of the dynamics of origins and admixture. We contend that the available evidence from Central Europe is most commensurate with the Assimilation Model of modern human origins, although some other models cannot be ruled out. The exact patterns of admixture between Neandertals and modern humans must await further evidence and analyses.
... An OIS stage 7 age for the Ehringsdorf sample is commensurate with all of the age indicators, including chronometric dating of the travertines to ≥ 200 ka (Street et al., 2006). Rosendahl et al., 2006Rosendahl et al., , 2011 Klausenhöhle-Klausennische di 1 † ...
... In southeastern Bavaria, the site of Hunas has produced an isolated lower right molar, possibly an M 3, from layer F2 and in direct association with Pleistocene fauna and Middle Paleolithic artifacts (Alt et al., 2006). 7 A speleotherm at the base of the deposits is dated to 76-79 ka by TIMS-U/Th (Alt et al., 2006;Rosendahl et al., 2011). The tooth is younger than this date range, but it is not possible to specify how much younger. ...
... Moreover, size does not appear to be a reliable criterion, since there is a large degree of overlap between the extant Barbary macaque and the several extinct subspecies (e.g., Rook et al., 2001). Thus, although M. s. prisca has been claimed to be somewhat smaller than the living form (Szalay and Delson, 1979;Jablonski, 2002;Rosendahl et al., 2011), body mass estimates indicate that among the fossil European forms, only M. majori significantly departs from extant M. sylvanus (by being about 15% smaller; see Delson et al., 2000). ...
... Thus, European macaques extended their geographical ranges much farther northwards during the interglacials, and retreated into their Mediterranean refugia during glacials (Fooden, 2007;Elton and O'Regan, 2008). In Italy, they survived at least until the Late Pleistocene (OIS5e3) (Mazza et al., 2005), whereas in the Iberian Peninsula they are last recorded at ca. 87e79 ka (late OIS5) (Castaños et al., 2011) and in Central Europe during the Würmian (OIS4) (Rosendahl et al., 2011). Apparently, European macaques ultimately became locally extinct because of their inability to tolerate the most severe stage of the last glaciation (Fooden, 2007). ...
The macaque material from the Early Pleistocene site of Quibas (Albanilla, Murcia, Spain), including dentognathic remains, isolated teeth and some postcranial bone fragments, is described. Both metrically and morphologically, this sample must be attributed to Macaca sylvanus (the Barbary macaque). This species is currently distributed through North Africa and Gibraltar, but was much more widely distributed during the Plio-Pleistocene, being represented by several European fossil subspecies. Metrical comparisons of dental size and proportions between extant M. s. sylvanus and fossil Macaca sylvanus florentina from the type locality and other Italian sites are undertaken, in order to classify the remains from Quibas at the subspecies level. The results show that the Quibas sample not only fits the range of variation of M. s. florentina from the type locality, but also differs from the extant Barbary macaque condition in several regards. This permits us to formally attribute the material from Quibas to M. s. florentina. The material described in this paper therefore significantly improves the knowledge of this fossil taxon, particularly regarding the upper dentition, and further confirms the taxonomic distinctiveness of this extinct taxon at the subspecies rank. Taken as a whole, M. s. florentina largely overlaps in dental dimensions with M. s. sylvanus, but differs from the latter by displaying (on average): (1) absolutely longer upper molars (especially M(1) and M(3)); (2) relatively wider upper molars (especially M(1) and M(2)); (3) longer M(3) as compared with the M(2); (4) absolutely longer M(1) and M(3); and (5) relatively narrower M(3).
Archaeoprimatology explores how humans and nonhuman primates coexisted in the past. This discipline has profound roots in texts of early scholars. Archaeoprimatological research examines the liminality between humans, apes, monkeys, and prosimians deep in time before the rise of the Anthropocene. By exploring the beginning of the relationship between modern Homo sapiens and primates, which possibly dates to approximately 100,000 BCE, I survey the evidence, ranging from portable objects and 2D surfaces with primatomorphic depictions to primate remains at archaeological sites worldwide. For example, an overview of ancient frescoes and mosaics with primate representations reveals that the vast majority of them were rendered in locations where primates were not part of the local fauna. An extensive review of primates in the zooarchaeological record shows as a global pattern that traded primates were usually young individuals and frugivorous/omnivorous species. Local primates yielded at sites of regions they naturally inhabited were mostly hunted. Thus, examining past patterns of the human–nonhuman primate interface provides insight into major questions about human niche construction and primate conservation today.
Hominin living sites in the chalk landscapes of the cooler, drier (and presumably sunnier) climates of the Middle Palaeolithic (MIS stages 5, 4 and 3) are rare, despite the existence of a large number of 'open-air' sites with scattered flint artefacts. An examination of a sample of known cave or cliff shelter sites confirms that thermal considerations including the perennial flow of spring water in karst valleys on south-facing sites with higher solar insolation would have been attractive for humans. Experiments on soot coated limestone show that there is a substantial thermal energy benefit to be gained from having multiple fireplaces at rock shelters, which again is consistent with the archaeological record. The need for fuel is examined, indicating that coexistence with beavers could have played an important role in reducing the high-energy and time consuming procurement of firewood. It is shown that the technique of charcoal analysis of Palaeolithic hearths may be biased in favour of pinewoods. Other forms of fuel are discussed, such as peat, mammoth dung (in the convenient form of pellets) and bone. The question of candoluminescence of calcium oxide and calcium sulphate is discussed in relation to the use of wood and bone fires (bonfires) and the apparent under-representation of mega-fauna limb bones in the fossil record. Experiments on the illumination in fires using fresh bone mixed with seasoned firewood and all-wood measure the advantages of using bone as a complementary fuel, light source and production of calcium oxide. The erosion of Upper Cretaceous Chalk and its influence on the landscape is reviewed, and the effect of 'Frost Creep' is analysed in relation to 'open-air sites' proposing that it is probable that this mechanism transported artefacts from original sites on steep scarp slopes to the 'open air' finds. The advantages of having higher living sites are examined in relation to the enhanced visual acuity of Middle Palaeolithic hominins. A survey of Middle Palaeolithic (MP) burial and flint extraction sites shows that manual excavation was common in soils and rock and it is suggested that living sites could have been enhanced through basic excavation on south-facing scarps in order to maximize the use of solar energy. Although the systematic excavation of cave sites in harder limestones has been undertaken for well over a hundred years, practically all 'open air' sites have been discovered during engineering works and the systematic examination of scarp slopes in areas of known Middle Palaeolithic habitation has yet to be undertaken. Field studies in the chalk landscapes of Southern England and the Vanne valley of France were carried out in order to identify possible Palaeolithic scarp sites, the results indicating that, despite erosion, a pattern of 'stepped' level areas just above steep slopes, close to water sources and immediately up-slope from 'open-air' sites can be seen. Lithics were found associated with these zones uncovered by animal burrows or tree roots. The excavation of test pits is recommended to assess the potential of these and other scarp areas. Thus instead of waiting for road/rail/quarry or wind farm engineers to uncover MP sites it is possible to use thermal criteria as a checklist or algorithm to pinpoint probable sites in chalk landscapes.
