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MRI images of hypnotic pain and physical pain.In this functional MRI (fMRI) study, eight highly hypnotically suggestible participants, who were hypnotized throughout the session, received painful (48.5 °C) heat stimuli from a thermal probe placed on the palm of their right hand (the physically induced pain condition)16. On some trials they were given the suggestion that the probe would be activated to the same painful level (the hypnotically induced pain condition) when in fact it remained at a comfortable setting (37.0 °C). Participants reported experiencing pain, and fMRI scans showed similar activation in brain areas associated with painful stimulation in both conditions. The figure shows brain activations for physically induced pain rated 5 on a 1–10 scale (top panel); for hypnotically induced pain (middle panel) rated 5 on a 0–10 scale; and for hypnotically induced pain rated 1 on a 0–10 scale (bottom panel). The activations are shown in red–yellow for physically induced pain and in blue–purple for the hypnotically induced pain. Importantly, for both physically induced and hypnotically induced pain, the amount of brain activation was proportional to the degree of pain reported. The bottom two rows in the figure show this for hypnotically induced pain: a hypnotically suggested pain experience rated at 1 (bottom panel) is accompanied by less brain activity than hypnotically induced pain rated at 5 (middle panel). Figure is reproduced, with permission, from Ref. 16 © (2004) Elsevier.
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Hypnosis uses the powerful effects of attention and suggestion to produce, modify and enhance a broad range of subjectively compelling experiences and behaviours. For more than a century, hypnotic suggestion has been used successfully as an adjunctive procedure to treat a wide range of clinical conditions. More recently, hypnosis has attracted a gr...
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Citations
... These differences are closely linked to a variety of factors, including personal psychological traits (such as suggestibility and levels of focus), previous experiences with hypnosis, and cognitive expectations regarding the treatment [12]. Research indicates that individuals with a higher hypnotic susceptibility are more likely to achieve deep relaxation and heightened states of concentration through hypnosis, which may be one reason they benefit more from hypnotherapy [13]. ...
... This analytical approach adheres to standard spectral demarcations of brainwave activity and aligns with the frequency domains pertinent to microstate examinations. Given that the Delta (1-4 Hz) and Beta (13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30) Hz) bands extend beyond the core focus of the microstate analysis, they were excluded from our analysis. The relative band power was computed following a standardized protocol, representing the fraction of total power in each specified band relative to the cumulative power across all the analyzed bands. ...
... First, the absence of a control group may compromise the specificity of evaluating the therapeutic effects of hypnosis intervention. Although a single-group pretest-posttest design holds methodological validity in clinical applications of hypnosis [8,13], and our previous fMRI studies [37] have confirmed the effectiveness of hypnosis in smoking cessation, eliminating confounding variables remains challenging. To enhance the validity of our findings, we implemented longitudinal multi-time point behavioral data collection and employed multivariate statistical analyses to control for covariates. ...
... motor imagery quality (Ruggirello et al., 2019), pain control (Santarcangelo & Carli, 2021), higher attentional focusing efficiency (Cojan et al., 2015), deeper absorption (Council & Green, 2004) and even a greater proneness to modulate the activity of the immune system (Gruzelier, 2002). Given the physiocognitive advantages linked to a high hypnotizability trait, examining the factors that make some individuals more responsive to hypnotic suggestions than others remain a central issue of both fundamental and clinical research in hypnosis (De Pascalis, 2024;Jensen et al., 2017;Oakley & Halligan, 2013). From a practical standpoint, optimizing the swift identification of individual hypnotizability traits through predictive factors should offer an effective means for determining personalized health interventions, which in turn may contribute to enhanced therapeutic outcomes. ...
Sleepiness and personality traits have been controversially reported as associated to individual hypnotizability level i.e. receptiveness to hypnotic suggestions and behave accordingly. In this study, we further investigate the relationship between the level of general daytime sleepiness and personality traits with the level of hypnotizability. Seventy-eight healthy young volunteers (34 women) completed the fast assessment of general daytime sleepiness and personality with the Epworth Sleepiness Scale and the 10-item Big Five Inventory respectively, and underwent hypnotic evaluation through the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility Form A (HGSHS:A). Main findings revealed a correlation between sleepiness and hypnotizability levels, and no influence of personality traits. Interestingly, women exhibited higher levels of hypnotizability compared to men. Taken together, these results suggest that sleepiness assessment might be considered as a predictive tool to hypnotic suggestions, which would offer practical insight for enhancing hypnosis intervention efficacy.
... The "as real" principle, based on the use of visualization and suggestion techniques (direct and indirect) involves creating a mental experience that simulates reality. The recipients of such an experience often report, according to Oakley and Halligan (2013), that they do not perceive the situation as imaginary, but as real. Moreover, it has been shown that suggested changes in perception or behavior are also associated with corresponding brain changes (Oakley & Halligan, 2013). ...
... The recipients of such an experience often report, according to Oakley and Halligan (2013), that they do not perceive the situation as imaginary, but as real. Moreover, it has been shown that suggested changes in perception or behavior are also associated with corresponding brain changes (Oakley & Halligan, 2013). In the context of obesity, this principle helps participants imagine a healthier body and experience the emotions and behaviors associated with that body, leading to real changes in eating behaviors and selfperception. ...
... Hypnotic suggestibility is a stable, heritable trait that reliably predicts experimental and clinical applications of hypnotic suggestions (Milling et al., 2021). The responses to suggestions among highly suggestible individuals are typically accompanied by a reduction in the sense of agency, "the classic suggestion effect" (Weitzenhoffer, 1974), and corresponding neurophysiological changes (Landry et al., 2017;Oakley & Halligan, 2013). ...
... The idea that hypnotic suggestion could be used in neurorehabilitation has been suggested multiple times in the academic literature [30][31][32]. Hypnosis has been extensively studied for its effectiveness in pain relief [33][34][35][36]. Hypnosis has also been successfully applied in motor rehabilitation [37][38][39][40], aphasia [41], vertigo, and a range of related sequelae [42,43]. ...
Introduction
Cognitive rehabilitation for brain injury using hypnosis has received little attention.
Methods
Here, we report on self-defined treatment goals and sleep-related outcomes from a randomized actively controlled trial of 49 patients with chronic cognitive sequelae following acquired brain injury. Patients were randomized to two groups, who initially received hypnotic suggestions either from a classical hypnosis tradition (“targeted”) or from a mindfulness tradition (“non-targeted”). Patients set self-defined goals for their everyday lives.
Results
After eight sessions, patients reported outcomes (PROs) indicated large improvements with “same” (13%), “better” (44%), “much better” (18%), or “not a problem anymore” (25%). The reported “not a problem anymore” was exclusively reported following hypnosis, not mindfulness. After a 7-week follow-up period both groups experienced a decrease in their need for sleep (~ 55 min/day). Exploratory factor analysis showed that only improvement on objective but not subjective measures (e.g. Working Memory Index, Trail Making Test, and the European Brain Injury Questionnaire scored by a relative) reflected a latent improvement factor. This indicates that subjective reports following hypnotic suggestions should be interpreted cautiously.
Conclusion
Based on our findings and converging evidence, we conclude that hypnosis is a promising method in cognitive neurorehabilitation following acquired brain injury, although further high-quality randomized controlled trials are required.
... An important step to address this challenge is to understand the neural underpinnings of altered conscious states by studying phenomena such as dreaming (Mutz & Javadi, 2017), meditation (Tang, H€ olzel, & Posner, 2015), shamanic (Flor-Henry, Shapiro, & Sombrun, 2017), psychedelic (Preller et al., 2019), or hypnotic states (Gruzelier, 2005). A dominant school of thought frames hypnosis as a behavioural and cognitive technique which uses attention and suggestion to induce highly focused perceptual, emotional, and cognitive states without the need for changes in sensory input (Jensen et al., 2017;Oakley & Halligan, 2013). We define the hypnotic state as the psychological experiences and neural differences arising due to hypnotic procedures. ...
... Similar to other altered conscious states characterised by the attentional absorption into an experience (Timmermann et al., 2023), hypnotic states are thought to alter information passing between cortical regions linked to attention and awareness. Several theories consider hypnotic states to rely on frontoparietal top-down influences on sensory processes (Gruzelier, 2006;Oakley & Halligan, 2013;Raz, 2011;Terhune et al., 2017). Especially in highly hypnotisable individuals, hypnotic states enhance top-down information transmission from frontal executive control networks to saliency-related areas such as the anterior cingulate cortex and the insula but decrease frontal connectivity to the default mode network (Hoeft, Gabrieli, Whitfield-Gabrieli, Haas, & Bammer, 2012;Huber, Lui, Duzzi, Pagnoni, & Porro, 2014;Jiang et al., 2017). ...
... Gruzelier (1998) investigated the dynamics of attentional systems in hypnotic states and identified a shift from left to right hemispheric processing, requiring interhemispheric integration. Those changes have been linked to shifts in attentional processing in frontal executive networks (Oakley & Halligan, 2013), highlighting the possibility that the frontoparietal propagation of cortical information observed in our data might reflect interhemispheric information integration related to attentional processing. Follow-up research should aim to clarify the function of interhemispheric frontoparietal information cascades in facilitating or sustaining hypnotic states. ...
Understanding the neural substrate of altered conscious states is an important cultural, scientific, and clinical endeavour. Although hypnosis causes strong shifts in conscious perception and cognition, it remains largely unclear how hypnosis affects information processing in cortical networks. Here we manipulated the depth of hypnotic states to study information processing between cortical regions involved in attention and awareness. We used high-density Electroencephalography (EEG) to record resting-state cortical activity from 30 hypnosis experts during two hypnotic states with different depth. Each participant entered a light and a deep hypnotic state as well as two well-matched control states. Bridging top-down and lateralisation models of hypnosis, we found that interhemispheric frontoparietal connectivity distinguished hypnosis and control conditions, while no difference was found between the two hypnotic states. Using a graph-theoretic measure, we revealed that the amount of information passing through individual nodes (measured via betweenness centrality) is reduced during hypnosis relative to control states. Finally, we found that theta power was enhanced during hypnosis. Our result contributes to the current discussion around a role for theta power in bringing about hypnotic states, as well as other altered conscious states. Overall, our findings support the notion that altered top-down control in frontoparietal regions facilitates hypnosis by integrating information between cortical hemispheres.
... The highly imaginative, on the other hand, are usually perceived as easily hypnotizable, cognitively flexible and creative. In addition, there is now also neurophysiological evidence (Oakley and Halligan, 2013) "that mental representations that are produced by voluntary acts of imagination are different from those resulting from hypnotic suggestion [… i.e. …] responses to hypnotic suggestions among highly suggestible individuals are independent of imagery and imagination" (Terhune and Oakley, 2020, p. 722). Moreover, McConkey et al. (1979) and Laidlaw and Large (1997) found that the CIS correlates well with the HGSHS, but that the two tests are independent of each other in their underlying dimensions. ...
Aspects of hypnosis and its application in psychotherapy, psychosomatics and medicine are examined and contextualized in the 250-year history of hypnosis. Imagination as an essential element of hypnotic treatments appeared as early as 1784 as an argument rejecting the theory of animal magnetism of Franz Anton Mesmer. In somnambulism of German romanticism, another proto-form of hypnosis after 1800, concepts of the mind–body problem were dealt with, which still characterize the understanding of unconscious mental processes today. Hypnosis was at the beginning of psychoanalysis, but was not pursued further by Sigmund Freud from 1900 onwards. Nevertheless, there were some hypnoanalytical approaches in the 20th century, as well as attempts to integrate hypnosis into behavior therapy. Techniques of imagination and relaxation combine both; in particular findings from cognitive psychology explain processes of both hypnosis and cognitive behavioral therapy. The influence of social psychology brought a new perspective to the debate about the nature of hypnosis, which continues to this day: is hypnosis to be understood as a special state of consciousness or is it a completely normal, mundane interaction? The experiments that were carried out to support one side or the other were also dependent on the hypnotizability of the subjects involved, as the more difficult hypnotic phenomena such as paralysis, hallucinations or identity delusions can only be demonstrated by highly hypnotizable subjects. The fact that these are not mere compliance reactions has now been proven by many studies using imaging techniques. But even those who are moderately hypnotizable benefit from hypnosis rituals. Variables postulated by socio-cognitive hypnosis researchers, such as motivation and expectation, are relevant, as is a good “hypnotic rapport.” Practical application of hypnotherapy today is characterized by the innovative techniques and strategies developed by Milton H. Erickson. Research into the effectiveness of hypnosis in the field of psychotherapy and psychosomatics still leaves much to be done. The situation is different in the field of medical hypnosis, where there are considerably more studies with a satisfactory design and verifiable effects. However, the impact in practical application in everyday medical practice is still low. Newer developments such as virtual reality and artificial intelligence are being looked at with critical interest.
... Another possible way to study NDE-like states is through the use of hypnosis [38,47,48]. Hypnosis is a technique that alters the state of consciousness, making the individual more receptive to suggestions and stimuli [49]. In the field of NDEs, a study was carried out on five volunteers who had experienced pleasant NDEs [38]. ...
The notion that death represents a passing to an afterlife, where we are reunited with loved ones and live eternally in a utopian paradise, is common in the anecdotal reports of people who have encountered a “near-death experience” (NDE). These experiences are usually portrayed as being extremely pleasant including features such as a feeling of peacefulness, the vision of a tunnel leading to a brilliant light, the sensation of leaving the body, or the experience of a life review. NDEs are increasingly being reported as a clearly identifiable physiological and psychological reality of clinical and scientific significance. The definition and causes of the phenomenon as well as the identification of NDE experiencers are still matters of debate. The phenomenon has been thoroughly portrayed by the media, but the science of NDEs is rather recent and still lacking rigorous experimental data and reproducible, controlled experiments. It seems that the most appropriate theories to explain the phenomenon tend to integrate both psychological and neurobiological mechanisms. It is remarkable to observe the richness and intensity of the memory despite a critical cerebral context. This challenges our conception of consciousness and offers a unique opportunity to better understand the neural correlates of consciousness. In this chapter, we will attempt to describe NDEs and how to identify them. We will also briefly discuss the NDE experiencers’ characteristics. Finally, we will address the main current explicative models and the science of NDEs.
... People who score high on these scales can experience visual hallucinations following hypnotic suggestions (Spanos et al., 1973) or even "unsee" a stimulus when it is presented after receiving the suggestion that there is nothing in front of them (negative visual hallucination - Spiegel, 2003). These reported experiences are not considered merely faking (Lynn et al., 2020), and neuroscientific evidence showed that they produce the physiological and neural changes that typically accompany genuine experience (Kosslyn et al., 2000;McGeown et al., 2012;Oakley & Halligan, 2013). ...
Phenomenological control is the ability to alter experience according to goals, measured by responses to imaginative suggestion. The capacity to create vivid mental imagery has been thought to contribute to generation of experiences following suggestions during hypnosis, but evidence is mixed. Moreover, no study has yet investigated this link outside of hypnosis. Across two studies (n = 639 and n = 66), we tested the relationship between imagery vividness and both non-hypnotic and hypnotic imaginative suggestion scales. Our samples included, for the first time, people lacking voluntary imagery (aphantasics). We also assessed this relationship following commonly used approaches to studying aphantasia (direct recruitment of self-reported aphantasics), versus those designed to minimize demand characteristics effects. We observed a weak positive relationship between imagery vividness and phenomenological control, with aphantasics being slightly lower in this trait than non-aphantasics. However, this effect was exaggerated among self-reported aphantasics, who scored lower on phenomenological control than samples experiencing imagery as well as aphantasics assessed via single-blind procedure. Our results have been certified as computationally reproducible by an independent statistician. We conclude that, while imagery may contribute to responding to imaginative suggestions, it is crucial to follow single-blind recruitment to reduce the effect of demand characteristics.
... The acting literature exploring parallel character and self-processing mirrors Hilgard's (1977) divided consciousness model, which uses hypnosis to demonstrate that consciousness is constantly split into two separately acting components. Meanwhile, contemporary literature views hypnosis as a highly absorbed attentional state arising from an 'induction phase', preparing an individual to be more amenable to adopt suggestions (Crawford and Gruzelier, 1992;Oakley and Halligan, 2013;Terhune et al., 2017). This understanding of hypnosis parallels acting approaches that focus on Stanislavsky's (1936) 'Inner ...
... Research suggesting that acting involves the split of consciousness between character and self would predict that the interference task would have no effect on acting performance, implying that a good actor would stay in character regardless of outside stimuli. However, based on Hilgard's findings, contemporary hypnosis theory (Oakley and Halligan, 2013), and acting teaching emphasizing being 'present', we hypothesized that actors would complete both tasks better when asked to consciously unify them. We predicted that preliminary survey explorations would indicate that actors who completed tasks better in this unified condition would display higher imaginative tendencies and actors better completing both tasks in a divided-consciousness condition would score higher on measures of dissociation. ...
... Future studies would benefit from re-examining this relationship using each subscale in its entirety. Given research on hypnosis emphasizing its absorptive attentional quality (Crawford and Gruzelier, 1992;Oakley and Halligan, 2013) and the parallels between hypnosis and acting theory, one would expect unified acting ability to be highly related to the absorption and imaginative involvement subscale of the DES-II. In fact, Panero, Michaels and Winner (2020) found that while actors scored significantly higher on the DES-II than the general population, only the absorption subscale drove these scores. ...
The art of acting, drama, or theatre has been largely excluded from the debate on the nature of consciousness in the scientific community. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether acting performance benefits from a divided or unified state of consciousness. Twenty-four acting students and professionals performed a monologue three times, twice with an interference task. Two different sets of instructions were provided for this task: one that asked participants to incorporate the interference into the world of their monologue (unified consciousness), and another that asked them to dissociate it from their theatrical performance (divided consciousness). The variables studied included an evaluation of performance on primary and secondary tasks, as well as responses on a creativity and dissociative experiences questionnaire and to open-ended questions. Two acting professors provided monologue ratings. There was a significant difference in interference task performance scores for the divided and unified conscious conditions, as well as for the primary rater's monologue scores. Participants performed better on both tasks when they were asked to incorporate the interference into the imagined world of their monologue. These results show that a unified conscious approach results in better performance on certain tasks, implying that unified consciousness may be more adaptive for certain daily functions such as multitasking.
