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... The reduction in live coral coverage leads to an increase in dead coral coverage (Muhaemin et al. 2022). Coral bleaching is a natural response to pressure exerted on corals due to extreme environmental conditions and human activities that cause coral stress (Setiawan et al., 2017), loss of Symbiodinium populations (zooxanthellae algae) or coral polyp habitats (Westmacott et al. 2000;Muhaemin et al. 2022). ...
Penambulai Island, one of the 676 islands in the Aru Islands Regency, is one of Indonesia's outermost small islands and has the status of a Certain National Strategic Area. The coral reefs on this island have been under pressure from human activities and climate influences. Research in the waters of Penambulai aims to analyze the potential of coral reefs. The research was conducted in August 2023. Data collection used the LIT method and data analysis used the English (1997) percent cover formula and the Standard criteria for coral reef damage and condition. The coral reefs around Penambulai Island are extensive, covering over 1,000 hectares. The majority of the reef area (73.76%) is comprised of living organisms, which is a good sign. Hard corals, a crucial reef-building organism, have a significant presence (42.04%). The reef exhibits high species diversity with 51 hard coral species belonging to various families and genera. Despite these positive aspects, the overall health of the coral reefs is considered "moderate" due to natural stressors.
... In this regard, Cesar (2000) points out that it caused a 30-50% of coral mortality in the Philippines and the potential loss for their national economy over the period 2000-2025 was estimated as US$ 1.5 million. Accordingly, losses in tourism and welfare revenues in Sri Lanka due to the coral bleaching were estimated at by 2000 -2025 is US$ 2.2 million (Westmacott et al., 2000). ...
... The lost producer surplus from commercial fishing precipitated by coral bleaching of the Great Barrier Reef is calculated as US$ 0.4 billion (Oxford Economics, 2009). Further, Westmacott et al. (2000) estimate that the financial damage due to coral bleaching which took place over a 20-year period until 1997 was over US$ 8 billion; that due to coastal erosion was US$ 2.2 billion; that due to tourism loss was US$ 3.3 billion; and that due to fishery loss was US$1.4 billion. ...
Eco-tourism all over the world is threatened by the fact that the coral reefs and associated ecosystems are in a process of disappearing at an accelerated rate due to several natural and anthropogenic causes. In this context, the Marine National Park Hikkaduwa (MNPH), one of the four marine national parks in Sri Lanka, that features a fringing coral reef with a high degree of biodiversity, reports a decreasing trend in visitation mainly due to a condition of coral bleaching caused by an El Nino effect. Unfortunately, the regeneration of the corals is found to be slowed by continuous anthropogenic activities. Against this background, the research focuses on investigating how visitor behaviour changes with the degraded situation and what avenues are available to attract more visitors to ensure benefit flows. In this concern, visitor preferences regarding the quality of the habitats and other facilities and their significance were analysed under a conditional logistic regression model. Further, a choice experiment was carried out with a randomly selected group of 200 visitors to diagnose their response to the present condition of the coral reef, the beach, and the facilities provided. Under a conditional logistic model, it was discovered that the condition of the coral reef is an important attribute that answers the question of why visitors are not willing to pay if the corals are bleached and broken. It was also discovered that the visitors are willing to pay LKR 322.52 if they are provided with new boats and new safety jackets. The results indicate that benefit flows could be enhanced with the restoration of coral ecosystems and the improvement of the physical infrastructure. Overall, the research attempts to establish that the standard maintenance of the coral reef along with high-quality visitor welfare facilities to match visitor preferences will positively impact all types of payment compliance issues with regard to the visitors.
... Also, islands with limited freshwater supplies are likely to be even more vulnerable to climate change impacts since it may cause alterations in hydric balance and an increase in soil salinization (TOMPKINS, 2005). Besides, both HadGEM2-ES and MIROC-ESM present outstanding accuracy in predicting the observed temperature and precipitation patterns for South America during the control period (1970-2000ANAV et al., 2013;WATANABE et al., 2011;YIN et al., 2013). ...
... With the rise of environmental temperature, the sea level rise and ocean acidification can also influence coastal erosion, besides coral bleaching (SOARES 2018). The reef mortality because of coral bleaching has immediate and long-term impacts on environmental balance and socio-economic activities in coastal areas, leading to changes in ecological processes and impacting the diversity and abundance of the local fish fauna (WESTMACOTT et al., 2000). ...
The Fernando de Noronha archipelago is one of the key areas for biodiversity conservation on the Brazilian coast and one of Brazil's most sought-after destinations for ecotourism. We assessed the potential Archipelago's risk from climate changes based on climate-related hazards, calculated through the percentage of changes between future and present values for each climatic and bioclimatic variable from the WorldClim database. Two radioactive force models were considered for the forecasts, considering an optimistic scenario and a business-as-usual scenario of greenhouse gas emissions. Our data indicated that minimum and maximum environmental temperatures are likely to increase homogeneously throughout the year, while a possible intensification of the dry season is likely to occur with a decrease in precipitation. In addition, our results indicate a decrease in isothermality, representing a decrease in the ratio between diurnal temperature variation and interannual temperature variation. Our results indicate that this important Archipelago is becoming potentially at risk of climatic and bioclimatic variation due to anthropogenic climate changes. We argue that the planning of local environmental policies should include adaptation and mitigation measures of negative effects of climate change, and conservation actions should be carried out under an integrative approach basis, including environmental conservation and remediation, sustainable use of resources, and regional and national governance.
... Coral reefs are one of the most productive and diverse ecosystems in the ocean (Goreau et al., 1979;Westmacott et al., 2000) and its structures harbor almost 25% of all marine species (Birkeland, 1997;Spalding et al., 2001). Most species have a high commercial value and provide food and livelihood for many coastal populations, reaching approximately 375 U.S.D. billions per year in goods and services (Hawkins et al., 2005;McClanahan et al., 2015;Roberts et al., 2001). ...
Coral reefs are highly diverse and productive ecosystems, and certain oceanographic processes, such as El Niño, have resulted in severe coral bleaching and mortality of reef‐building corals and to the global decline of the area covered by coral reefs. Here, we report the response of corals and both green and red filamentous and coralline algae from the central Mexican Pacific coast to the 2015–16 El Niño event. Sea surface temperature (SST) was recorded in the area between june 2012 and December 2018. Additionally, SST, DHW and the Oceanic El Niño Index (ONI) provided by NOAA for the El Niño 3 region during the same period were considered. Relative cover (%) of healthy, pale, bleached and dead corals, coral rubble, filamentous algae, rocks, and sand were recorded at five reefs during 2010, 2015, and 2018. Between April 2015 and April 2016, the SST was warmer than average, and the ONI showed temperature anomalies near 3, indicating a strong El Niño event. The response of corals varied among reefs and years. No relevant changes in substrata cover were recorded at two reefs through the years, but extensive coral bleaching occurred at the other reefs in June 2015, with dramatic coral mortality as a consequence. An inability to recover and the resulting dominance of filamentous algae over dead corals was evident at two reefs in January 2018. Multivariate analysis based on the cover of substrata and the comparison with previous studies suggested that the response of the coral reefs was not related to the previous state of conservation or the level of anthropogenic impact at each reef. The causes of such thermal resistance are uncertain; nonetheless, it has a high potential to cope with future El Niño impacts.
... Although impacts are difficult to discern and not immediate, coral bleaching is likely to have long-term negative effects on Kenyan reef fisheries and the amenity value of the reefs for dive and snorkelling tourism. Mangrove destruction reduces coastal fisheries and removes sources of forest products widely used by local people Ngecu and Mathu (1999), Westmacott et al. (2000), McClanahan et al. (2002), Grandcourt and Cesar (2003), Pratchett et al. (2008) respond and adapt to shocks and long-term change) (Turner et al. 2003). ...
The 2015–2016 El Niño had large impacts globally. The effects were not as great as anticipated in Kenya, however, leading some commentators to call it a ‘non-event’. Our study uses a novel combination of participatory Climate Vulnerability and Capacity Analysis tools, and new and existing social and biophysical data, to analyse vulnerability to, and the multidimensional impacts of, the 2015–2016 El Niño episode in southern coastal Kenya. Using a social-ecological systems lens and a unique dataset, our study reveals impacts overlooked by conventional analysis. We show how El Niño stressors interact with and amplify existing vulnerabilities to differentially impact local ecosystems and people. The policy significance of this finding is that the development of specific national capacities to deal with El Niño events is insufficient; it will be necessary to also address local vulnerabilities to everyday and recurrent stressors and shocks to build resilience to the effects of El Niño and other extremes in climate and weather.
... The NGO influence index also decreases. Some authors argue that despite declines the utility of coral dive sites due to mass mortality events, tourists continue to visit the sites (Andersson 2007) and that few economic losses can be detected after mass mortality events in short term (Westmacott et al. 2000). However, these studies focus on the situation shortly after a mass mortality event, and do not investigate long-term impacts. ...
This study uses an agent-based model (ABM), called KohTaoSim, to represent the complex dynamics of a dive-tourism related social ecological system (SES), using the island of Koh Tao, Thailand as a case study. The results of testing KohTaoSim under different environmental and management scenarios indicate that from an ecological perspective, large scale environmental disturbances, especially mass mortality events (e.g. bleaching), play a dominant role in coral degradation. Local stressors will however compound and exacerbate the effects of global stressors. From a social-economic perspective, visitor numbers are the most important factor affecting the incomes of dive schools results suggest that these are to a large extent self-regulating. Waste water treatment and reforestation are the management actions that will bring most benefits, both from an ecological and an economic perspective. Agent-based modelling was found to be an appropriate option for analysis of this coral-based dive tourism SES. Firstly, it enabled the spatial and temporal dynamics of the system to be captured and analyzed. Second it enabled empirical data from social research to be integrated into the model, to show the effects of social dynamics on ecological processes and vice versa. Thirdly, the freedom to define agents of different types and acting at different scales facilitated cross-disciplinary and cross-scale analysis. Finally, and most importantly, the ABM allowed local stakeholders to become fully involved in the iterative modeling procedure, and provided a platform for them to formulate their own management proposals.
... Doshi et al. (2012) is one example presenting estimates of the cost of coral bleaching in Southern East Asia. This environmental problem is associated with a combination of several stresses, inter alia, changes in salinity, exposure to extreme low tides, and an increase in sea water temperature (Westmacott et al. 2000). Doshi et al.'s CE comprises two attributes characterizing the biodiversity of coral and other marine life, percentage of coral bleaching, and dive costs associated with the conservation of corals. ...
A choice experiment is undertaken to elicit preferences of scuba divers in the Marine Protected Area of Medes Islands (Spain). This is the first non-market valuation study of a typical Mediterranean habitat, the Coralligenous, which is characterized by high biodiversity, geomorphologic complexity and iconic species like gorgonians. This habitat is not only very attractive for scuba diving, but is also threatened by climate change and ocean acidification, which is our motivation for undertaking this valuation study. Choice attributes
include the number of divers on a diving trip, underwater landscape, presence of jellyfish species, expected state of gorgonians, and price of a dive. Results of multinomial and random parameter logit models indicate a decrease in the attractiveness of Coralligenous areas for scuba diving as a result of both environmental pressures. Estimates of welfare values show that the local extinction of gorgonians had the highest negative effect on utility equivalent to a cost of e60 per dive, followed by abundance of stinging jellyfish with a cost of e26 per dive. Choice probabilities for the selection of different dive experiences indicate the highest
rejection rates for the combined sea warming and acidification scenarios.
... For example, elevated sea temperature events can cause corals to bleach and die. This can alter the goods and services that coral reefs provide by changing the species compositions of fish and potentially reducing reef fisheries productivity, and consequently harming reef-dependent people [6,12,13,14,15]. The current era of rapid anthropogenic-driven climate change has the potential to undermine coral-reef associated livelihoods [7]. ...
There is an increasing need to evaluate the links between the social and ecological dimensions of human vulnerability to climate change. We use an empirical case study of 12 coastal communities and associated coral reefs in Kenya to assess and compare five key ecological and social components of the vulnerability of coastal social-ecological systems to temperature induced coral mortality [specifically: 1) environmental exposure; 2) ecological sensitivity; 3) ecological recovery potential; 4) social sensitivity; and 5) social adaptive capacity]. We examined whether ecological components of vulnerability varied between government operated no-take marine reserves, community-based reserves, and openly fished areas. Overall, fished sites were marginally more vulnerable than community-based and government marine reserves. Social sensitivity was indicated by the occupational composition of each community, including the importance of fishing relative to other occupations, as well as the susceptibility of different fishing gears to the effects of coral bleaching on target fish species. Key components of social adaptive capacity varied considerably between the communities. Together, these results show that different communities have relative strengths and weaknesses in terms of social-ecological vulnerability to climate change.
... Bay resulted from fish poisoning, dynimite fishing and fish netting in coral reef areas beside coral bleaching oc curring many places in Asia (Lalamentik 1998, Rajasuriya et al. 1999, Ohman 1999, Cesar 2000, Westmacott et al. 2000. ...
Reefballs are internationally patented (1995) and/or copyrighted technologies that allow nearly all natural reef features to be mimicked (Barber, 2000). It is used in over 56 countries for a range of applications including fishing reefs (recreational and commercial), diving reefs, mitigation of dredging and blast fishing, enhancement of coastal develop-ments and multipurpose breakwaters. The rehabilitation of coral reef ecosystem have been broadly acted in Indonesia and even worldwide. Various models and structures of artificial reefs have been made in many countries from different materials. Many of those artificial reefs do not get good attention on their condition after locating them on the sea basin. In 1999, the gold mine operator PT Newmont Minahasa Raya initiated an artificial reef program to provide an incentive to protect local marine resources from bomb fishing, cyaniding and other unsustainable practices. Monitoring program was conducted annually from 2001 to 2009 in 3 locations both in reefball area and adjacent natural reef in 3m and 10m depth at Buyat Bay and surroundings, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Monitoring was conducted specific for Target and Indicator species with ‘visual census’ method. The survey in 2009 identified 13 families, 29 genera, 81 species and 2,025 individuals inhabiting the reefballs at 3m depth whereas at 10m depth, 14 families, 36 genera, 106 species and 3883 individuals were found. After 9 years monitoring, it was found that one location of Reefball have better fish settlement compared to the adjacent natural reef. One location was in progress to recovery and the location still under the natural reef.
... Extreme events such as high-intensity cyclones and increased sea surface temperatures can have profound impacts on coral reef ecosystems and the communities that depend on them. For example, coral bleaching and mortality resulting from elevated sea temperature events may alter the goods and services that coral reefs provide by reducing reef fisheries productivity or changing the species compositions of fish that people harvest from reefs (Graham et al., 2007; Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999; Hughes et al., 2003; MacNeil and Graham, 2010; Westmacott et al., 2000). In turn, people dependent on reef goods and services may need to adapt their resource-use patterns to maintain the flow of goods and services. ...
