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The European Commission set a clear goal with the Green Deal to establish a transition towards a greener economy with the transport sector being one of the main pillars. A key ingredient are lithium-ion batteries required for the uptake of electric vehicles. The Green Deal underlines the goals formulated in the Strategic Action Plan on Batteries. E...
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... However, natural graphite usually exhibits lower performance in batteries than its synthetic counterpart (shorter lifetime, slower charging time), due to inconsistent purity (Abdollahifar et al., 2022). Furthermore, the development time (8-10 years) for opening new graphite mines and refining facilities (Buchert et al., 2020), the unequal distribution of graphite deposits, with China concentrating 65 % of global production (USGS, 2023), the health (Jara et al., 2019) and environmental impacts (CDC, 2022) related to graphite mining and refining limit the potential of natural graphite for future LIB anodes. Synthetic graphite also shows downsides, such as a higher carbon footprint due to high energy use in the production, with 4.86-13.8 ...
... Synthetic graphite also shows downsides, such as a higher carbon footprint due to high energy use in the production, with 4.86-13.8 kg CO 2 -eq/kg for synthetic graphite compared to 2.1-7.75 kg CO 2 -eq/kg for natural graphite (Buchert et al., 2020;Engels et al., 2022;Manjong et al., 2021;Rui et al., 2022;Surovtseva et al., 2022;Zhang et al., 2018). Because of rapid synthetic graphite production expansion, combined with the long development time of opening new graphite mines, the share of synthetic graphite in batteries has risen in recent years, reaching up to 90 % in 2023 (Abdollahifar et al., 2022;Pan, 2024;Schmuch et al., 2018). ...
... While graphite is an inert material, its processing is not exempt from environmental issues: mining tailings are usually released in water bodies, graphite refining releases dust that causes respiratory issues (CDC, 2022) and its purifying uses harmful chemicals (Jara et al., 2019). More importantly, it will be challenging to increase natural graphite production at the speed required for net zero scenarios: it typically takes 8-10 years to establish new natural graphite production, whereas synthetic graphite production can be scaled up in less than 2 years (Buchert et al., 2020). In the meantime, the EU has enacted a ban on thermal vehicles starting from 2035 (European Parliament, 2022), leaving little time to develop new natural graphite projects. ...
Transitioning to electric vehicles (EVs) powered by lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) aims at reducing emissions in the transportation sector, thereby decreasing fuel oil use and crude oil extraction. Yet, synthetic graphite, a crucial anode material for LIBs, is produced from needle coke, a byproduct of oil refining. This dependency could lead to bottlenecks in battery anode production. We found no obvious supply constraints for synthetic graphite in slow electrification scenarios based on different International Energy Agency scenarios. In contrast, net zero scenarios reveal drastic limitations in synthetic graphite supply, due to fast electrification and declining needle coke production. Natural graphite can mitigate supply limitations but faces environmental concerns, long development time and geopolitical concerns. Securing graphite supply while reaching the net zero goals requires comprehensive strategies combining (1) systematic graphite recycling, (2) overcoming current technical challenges, and (3) behavioral shifts towards reduced vehicle ownership and smaller vehicles.
... Dolega et al. (2020) is the only report mentioning lithium conflicts in Australia. Although there are reports of environmental risks affecting areas near the Wodgina and Greenbushes mines, the report does not indicate any documented harm to the local populations or opposition to mining due to these risks. ...
The surging demand for lithium-powered electric vehicles and energy storage systems, driven by the low-carbon energy transition, is explored in this study regarding its impact on socio-environmental lithium conflicts up to 2019. We show the limitations of applying resource curse models for this enquiry due to unique characteristics of lithium cases and discrepancies between economic (demand, price and production) and conflict data. Combining quantitative political ecology methods with the explanatory power of ethnographic insights from critical resource geography, this paper builds and investigates a dataset encompassing 13 lithium and 41 non-transition-related resource ('NTR') conflicts in Argentina and Chile, mainly using data from Environmental Justice Atlas. Findings reveal distinct patterns between the two conflict types, with lithium conflicts experiencing increased initiation and intensification during 2010-2019 when all of the core conflict events, i.e., human, indigenous and environmental rights violations & reported health hazards, legal actions, mass mobilisations and violent events took place. Forms of mass mobilisations, such as protests and roadblocks, were commonly observed in both lithium (15 events) and NTR (19 events) cases with higher intensity per case in the former whereas rights violations (1 vs 13 events) and legal actions (5 vs 34) were less common in lithium conflicts. We then discuss the impacts of the demand pressure on governments, companies and indigenous residents, with their responses to these influences. We demonstrate that, while State actors became more active in the economic sphere of lithium mining, they abandoned their role as the guarantor of indigenous citizens' rights until 2019. Economic opportunities, uncertainties and the 'green discourse' fuelled by the transition demand led the State and private actors to neglect indigenous concerns, rights and lifestyles. In the absence of state support, indigenous communities asserted their agency through mainly protests and roadblocks navigating the socio-environmental impact landscape amidst evolving state-company-community dynamics.
... This wide use is the result of graphite's many different properties. Graphite is strong yet flexible, a good conductor of electricity and heat, but it is also fire and cold-resistant [76,77]. Graphite is a key mineral for the energy transition, contributing to cleantech solutions. ...
The work presents selected material issues related to the development of modern motorization. The advantages and threats of obtaining key materials for the automotive industry were analyzed. Aspiration to radically reduce CO2 emissions sets the main trend in the automotive industry focused on the production of electric cars. The production of electric cars is closely related to the development of innovative battery production technologies using such critical elements as lithium, magnesium, nickel, cobalt, and graphite. Their acquisition and production of components is concentrated in several countries around the world, including China, which is their main supplier. The lack of diversification of supplies and the huge expected increase in demand for these materials, resulting from the exponential growth in the production of electric cars, pose threats to supply chains. One of the solutions is the development of effective technologies for battery recycling. There is a risk of losing many jobs as a result of changes in the automotive market and the withdrawal of classic cars from production. Taking into account the scope, pace, and changes resulting from changes in the automotive industry, in particular in the field of materials, one should expect their global impact on the economy.
... Although graphite itself is chemically inert and poses no direct hazard to the environment, its mining and subsequent processing produce emissions [93,133]. There are two main environmental concerns linked with graphite mining: the presence of other minerals that may coexist with graphite and the inhalation of graphite particles or silica minerals during mining and processing [93]. ...
... There are two main environmental concerns linked with graphite mining: the presence of other minerals that may coexist with graphite and the inhalation of graphite particles or silica minerals during mining and processing [93]. For instance, the iron sulfide minerals pyrite and pyrrhotite are found in some graphite deposits in levels ranging from a trace to several percent [93,133]. If exposed to air and water in waste rock or tailings, these minerals may induce acid-rock drainage [93,133]. ...
... For instance, the iron sulfide minerals pyrite and pyrrhotite are found in some graphite deposits in levels ranging from a trace to several percent [93,133]. If exposed to air and water in waste rock or tailings, these minerals may induce acid-rock drainage [93,133]. Graphite in soils and stream or river sediments is inert and presents no known terrestrial or aquatic concerns [93]. ...
Electrical materials such as lithium, cobalt, manganese, graphite and nickel play a major role in energy storage and are essential to the energy transition. This article provides an in-depth assessment at crucial rare earth elements topic, by highlighting them from different viewpoints: extraction, production sources, and applications. Thus, the major economic and geopolitical issues related to these materials are emphasised. Elsewhere, numerous risks and concerns associated with the critical materials value chain are listed, and different strategies attempting to respond to these issues are presented.
... The environmental impacts of NG production are directly connected to the regulatory powers of environmental rules for mining and processing while SG is especially linked to the types of and regulations on the energy sources that power production processes. For further information, see Dolega et al. (2020). ...
... But even if the material itself is not dangerous, such as graphite, inhaling the powder form of the material can also be dangerous for workers who come into contact with it. For further information, see Dolega et al. (2020). ...
Meeting the Paris Agreement’s goals requires transformation in the mobility sector. Battery electric vehicle technology today offers a promising technology to achieve the necessary changes and transform the sector. Yet this transformation goes hand in hand with a significant increase in the raw material demand for lithium-ion batteries.
This document provides an overview on the current status of the mobility sector, focusing on three selected value-chain steps for lithium-ion batteries – raw material mining, battery cell production and battery recycling – and four relevant materials: lithium, cobalt, nickel and graphite.
Key players and sustainability challenges along the supply chain steps were identified for this analysis. Mining faces a wide range of challenges, which are raw-material and site-specific. Overarching challenges in hard rock or ore mining (for the selected materials lithium, cobalt, nickel and graphite) include heavy metal pollution, acid mine drainage, energy intensive processing, habitat fragmentation, disturbance of land areas and dust pollution. For lithium from brines, water scarcity and connected social tensions as well as dust emissions are major challenges. Social dimensions related to cobalt mining are an additional issue already in public discourse; the main cobalt-producing country, the Democratic Republic Congo (DRC), has a relatively high share (10-20% of production from DRC) of artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM). ASM is the income basis of thousands of families in the DRC. But the often informal ASM sector is connected to child labour, forced labour, inadequate health and safety conditions, and funding of armed conflicts.
Battery cell manufacturing also faces challenges. It is a very energy-intensive process and therefore associated with high greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, the toxic substances in the battery cell require proper handling. As well, high susceptibility to production errors for battery cells lead to high scrap rates in production.
Recycling of end-of-life Li-ion batteries is indispensable because of the high risk of “thermal runaway” related to overheating batteries leading to fires. Therefore, adequate collection, storage, transport and treatment of used Li-ion batteries are essential.
This report also examines existing standards and initiatives addressing these challenges. Various regulations, standards, initiatives as well as guidelines promoting sustainable practices for the mining sector were analysed. It was noted that the availability of standards and frameworks for the battery cell manufacturing and recycling steps are rather limited while other value chain steps are covered in numerous initiatives.
A gap analysis was conducted to assess whether the standards and initiatives cover the challenges that exist in the supply chains. In the mining sector, one identified gap is the very large and confusing number of guidelines. There is no international framework that also provides mutual recognition of standards. Such a framework would define terms and provide guidance for companies on which standards to apply. For customers, too, knowing which standards and corporate qualities are relevant is challenging.
These difficulties in knowing what standards are best also apply to battery cell manufacturing and the collection and recycling of end-of-life Li-ion batteries. There are no international guidelines addressing the whole supply chain. The proposal for an EU Regulation on (waste) batteries could offer an important step to integrate crucial elements of the supply chain in a regulation (supply chain due diligence, product carbon footprint, material specific recycling targets, recycled content etc.).
Resource efficiency is a relevant lever to reduce the negative impacts in primary extraction. Especially when considering the rapidly increasing demand for raw materials in the growing market of electric vehicles, a decoupling of economic growth from resource consumption is necessary.
As a first step in the Roadmap process, an overarching vision was developed with various goals that need to be achieved by 2050 to ensure a sustainable and responsible value chain in the mobility sector. The basis of this vision is built on the concepts of planetary boundaries and strong sustainability.
... But from 2016 to 2017, Australian lithium production tripled, and in 2018 it again increased by nearly 50 % over the previous year. As a result, since 2018 Australia produces over half of worldwide primary lithium from its hard-rock mines [Dolega et al. 2020]. ...
... For Australian mining, such social impacts, like environmental impacts, are in part managed at a higher level; the national government of Australia maintains high work-safety standards and offers above-average mining salaries. As well, child labour or artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) do not occur in Australia [Dolega et al. 2020]. Social issues can arise when mining takes place on Aboriginal lands or sacred sites (e.g. ...
... SG always has the same quality and is more versatile in its use in the final anode material, but it is also more expensive. Their different origins also imply different environmental impacts [Dolega et al. 2020]. ...
Rohstoffverbrauch von Verbrennern und E-Autos im Vergleich
Der jährliche Rohölbedarf für Pkw in Deutschland kann bis 2035 um 56 Prozent gegenüber 2020 sinken, wenn bis dahin der Anteil der elektrischen Pkw an den Zulassungen in Deutschland auf 100 Prozent steigt. Diese Einsparungen übertreffen deutlich den Verbrauch von fossilen Energieträgern wie Erdgas, die zur Deckung des zusätzlichen Strombedarfs von Elektrofahrzeugen benötigt werden.
Dieses Szenario vorausgesetzt, wird die Spitze des Primärmetallverbrauchs des Pkw-Sektors bereits um 2035 erreicht sein. Hier geht es vor allem um die Schlüsselrohstoffe Lithium, Kobalt, Nickel und Kupfer für die Lithium-Ionen-Batterien. Auch die steigenden Sekundärmetallquoten, also der Einsatz von recycelten Metallen aus Antriebsbatterien, in den nächsten Jahren tragen dazu bei. Der Verbrauch von Platingruppenmetallen – wie Platin, Palladium oder Rhodium – für Autoabgas-Katalysatoren wird in diesem Fall ebenfalls stark zurückgehen: bis auf nahe null im Jahr 2035.
Große Transformation der Pkw-Branche: Auswirkungen auf den Rohstoffverbrauch
Das sind Ergebnisse der Studie “Resource consumption of the passenger vehicle sector in Germany until 2035 – the impact of different drive systems“ im Auftrag des Bundesumweltministeriums. Damit hat das Forschungsteam des Öko-Instituts, unterstützt von Kollegen von ifeu und Transport&Environment, eine umfassende Analyse des Ressourcenaufwands für unterschiedliche Entwicklungen vorgelegt.
„Wir haben die Auswirkungen verschiedener Antriebe fair verglichen, indem wir den Bedarf an Metallen und fossilen Brennstoffen in den Ressourcenverbrauch sowohl bei E-Fahrzeugen und Verbrennern miteinbezogen haben“, sagt Dr. Matthias Buchert vom Öko-Institut. „Wir haben eine Forschungslücke geschlossen, indem wir mögliche Entwicklungen des deutschen Pkw-Sektors bis 2035 aus einer Ressourcenperspektive untersucht und bewertet haben.“
Kernempfehlungen aus der Studie
Die folgenden Empfehlungen leiten sich aus den Studienergebnissen ab:
Sorgfaltspflicht entlang der Lieferkette (Supply Chain Due Diligence) für wichtige Batteriematerialien
Forderung nach ehrgeizigen Recyclingzielen für Schlüsselmaterialien für Batterien
Einstieg in eine Kreislaufwirtschaft auch für Seltene Erden in Europa
Beschleunigung des Ausbaus von erneuerbaren Energien für den Stromsektor
Kriterien für verantwortungsvolle Rohstoffgewinnung für die verbleibende Rohölförderung
Die Methode des Forschungsteams
Die Wissenschaftler haben für die Analyse zwei unterschiedliche Szenarien für die mögliche Entwicklung des Pkw-Sektors bis 2035 in Deutschland definiert. Das Ziel: die wesentlichen Unterschiede im Rohstoffverbrauch herauszustellen. Verglichen wurden ein Verbrennungsfahrzeug- und ein Elektrofahrzeug-Szenario.
Das Verbrennungsfahrzeug-Szenario geht von einer konservativen Entwicklung des Pkw-Sektors aus. Hier liegt der Anteil der Verbrenner an allen Neuzulassungen auch im Jahr 2035 noch bei fast 60 Prozent. Im Elektrofahrzeug-Szenario hingegen würden von 2035 nur noch batterieelektrische Fahrzeuge auf dem Pkw-Markt in Deutschland zugelassen werden.
Da sich die Automobilbranche derzeit rasant in Richtung der Elektrifizierung von Fahrzeugen entwickelt, wird auch der Ressourcenverbrauch für Kernkomponenten von Elektrofahrzeugen – allen voran die Lithium-Ionen-Batterie – hinsichtlich Umweltbelastungen und negativen sozialen Auswirkungen seit Jahren kritisch hinterfragt. Die Studie analysiert hier die wichtigsten Entwicklungen bei den wesentlichen Rohstoffen und trifft Einschätzungen zur jeweiligen Relevanz.
Metalle vs. fossile Brennstoffe
Kurzfristig bis mittelfristig ergibt sich im Elektroauto-Szenario ein wachsender Metallbedarf, dafür werden viel weniger fossiler Brennstoffe verbraucht. Im Verbrenner-Szenario ist der Metallbedarf niedriger, jedoch ist und bleibt der fossile Energiebedarf sehr hoch. Langfristig können Metalle aber im Kreislauf geführt werden, während fossile Energieträger nach der Verbrennung nicht mehr verwertbar sind.
Die Studie beleuchtet jedoch nicht nur die Auswirkungen des Rohstoffbedarfs von Lithium, Kobalt oder Seltenen Erden. Ein wichtiges Augenmerk liegt auf den Förder- und Lieferregionen, aus welchen die in Deutschland benötigten Ressourcen stammen. Der überwiegende Teil des Erdöls für Deutschland stammt aus Lieferländern, in denen die Erdölförderung negative Umwelt- und soziale Auswirkungen hat.
Grundlagen der Szenarien
Die Antriebssysteme Verbrennungsmotor, Hybrid-, Plug-in-Hybrid- und batterieelektrisches Fahrzeug liefern die Daten für die Simulation. Beiden Szenarien wurden jeweils jährliche Neuzulassungen von etwa 3,2 bis 3,3 Millionen Pkw zugrunde gelegt. Zur Wahrung der Vergleichbarkeit bei der Bewertung wurde aus methodischen Gründen darauf verzichtet, weitere Eckpunkte einer Verkehrswende einzubeziehen – zum Beispiel mehr ÖPNV und Radverkehr und dafür weniger Pkw.
Die Forschenden haben sich auf die Komponenten und die wichtigsten Materialien konzentriert, die sich zwischen den einzelnen Antriebssystemen unterscheiden. Dazu gehören zum Beispiel die Autoabgaskatalysatoren für Autos mit Verbrennungsmotoren oder Lithium-Ionen-Batterien in elektrischen Pkws. Fahrzeugkomponenten wie Reifen, Karosserie, Windschutzscheiben, Federung und deren benötigte Rohstoffe, die in allen PKW verbaut sind, wurden in der Studie ebenfalls nicht berücksichtigt.
Auch die benötigten Energieträger wurden berücksichtigt: Diesel und Benzin sowie elektrische Energie. Zusätzlich wurde die erforderliche Infrastruktur für die Energiegewinnung in die Berechnung des Ressourcenbedarfs einbezogen. Für den Strommix in Deutschland wurde ein wachsender Anteil an erneuerbaren Energien bis rund 69 Prozent im Jahr 2035 zugrunde gelegt.
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are essential in the low-carbon energy transition. However, the social consequences of LIBs throughout the entire lifecycle have been insufficiently explored in the literature. To address this gap, this study conducted a comprehensive review of peer-reviewed literature, grey literature, and conflicts in the Global Atlas of Environmental Justice associated with LIBs lifecycle. The UNEP Social Lifecycle Assessment framework was utilised for categorisation of stakeholders and social impacts categories. The socio-ecological dynamics and consequences of the global production of LIBs were analysed from the perspective of the Safe and Just operating spaces of the Doughnut Economics (DE). The main results indicate that Worker, Local community, and Society are the most investigated stakeholders, while Consumers, Value chain actors and Children are overlooked. Social impact subcategories related to Safe and healthy living conditions and Access to material resources receive more attention due to social concerns about environmental and social degradation associated with raw material extraction in the LIBs lifecycle. The analysis from DE framework reveals that the increased business as usual production of LIBs can hinder the achievement of a safe and just transition due to undesired socio-ecological consequences, such as increased CO2 emissions, air pollution, land degradation, biodiversity loss, and water pollution that leading to increase poverty, inequality, discrimination (gender and race), health damage, corruption, and conflicts. More research is needed to understand and simulate social consequences of LIBs lifecycle. To this end, a holistic future research agenda is provided.
The number of lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) from hybrid and electric vehicles that are produced or discarded every year is growing exponentially, which may pose risks to supply lines of limited resources. Thus, recycling and regeneration of end‐of‐life LIBs (EoL‐LIBs) is becoming an urgent and critical task for a sustainable and environmentally friendly future. In this regard, much attention, especially in industry, is expended for developing recycling of cathode materials and the other valuable materials, but not much attention is dedicated to the recycling and reuse of graphite (Gr) from EoL‐LIBs. Herein, the current status of EoL‐LIB regeneration is summarized, with a focus on the recycling and purification of Gr, a state‐of‐the‐art anode material for most of the commercial LIBs. According to the recent advances regarding Gr recycling, three major regeneration processes of Gr are categorized, including i) washing Gr with different solvents, ii) thermal treatment process, and iii) hybrid (chemical and thermal) treatment processes. Depending on the source of the LIBs, and the method and quality of separation and purification, the recycled Gr can be reutilized as an active material for battery industries, including graphene production, as well as many other alternative applications, which are also addressed here.
