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Labor force participation rate of men and women with tertiary education
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This paper investigates the gender wage gap for full-time formal sector employees, disaggregated by education level. The gap between the labor force participation rate of women with tertiary education and those with lower levels of education is substantial. There is no such gap for men. Hence, existing gender wage gap studies for Turkey, where we o...
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Citations
... Hara [17] finds that the gap in Japan is converging but is still quite large (28% in 2014). On the other hand, Tekgüç et al. [18] find the adjusted gender wage gap in Turkey increased from 2004 to 2011, and Vacarro et al. [19] find the raw wage gap in Peru increased from 2007 to 2011. ...
... Some studies examine differences in industries and occupations chosen by men and women. A few studies ( [22,23], and [18]) mention that women are more likely than men to work in the public sector and [22] reports that the public sector pays less. Average wages and gender wage gaps can differ by industry and country. ...
... As we are measuring years spent on education and not the actual degree, one explanation may be that women take longer to complete their degrees because of family and social pressures [22]. Another explanation is that women may be over-qualified for their positions [18]. Still another explanation is that women choose degrees that lead to lower paying careers (e.g., social work versus engineering) [13]. ...
In the last decades, there has been increasing awareness of the different types of inequalities that women experience. A very important inequality is the wage gap. Understanding the elements that affect this gap is crucial in order for governments to take the right actions to diminish the gap. It is also important to understand the broader context in which this inequality has evolved over time. In this paper, we develop a causal inference model based on the ideas of Potential Outcome (PO) and Metalearners (ML) to address this important issue. We include a time variable in the causal analysis which helps to determine how the effects have evolved over the last decades. We apply data from 1990 to 2017 from the official government social survey of Chile to fit the models. We then make a deep analysis of each variable using the SHAP framework to see the impact of each variable on the gender wage gap. Sadly, our results indicate that there has been a gap between the earnings of men and women over the last three decades, and the gap actually widened over time. We also find that variable decomposition helps to clarify the different effects as some variables clearly help to diminish this gap. Our results may assist the government of Chile and other organizations to endorse policies that may reduce the gap.
... The literature on the Turkish labor market did not attempt to analyze this relationship so far. Tekgüç et al. (2017) observe the rise in the gender wage gap between 2004 and 2011 but do not directly link it to the rise in female activity in the labor market. In the empirical analysis, I use the regional variation in female activity rates and wage gaps and estimate panel data models. ...
... 5 Kara (2006) estimates wage gaps for occupational groups, and Cudeville and Gurbuzer (2010) estimates wage gaps by sub-populations based on occupation, age group, economic sector, and education. Finally, Tekgüç et al.(2017) focus on the effect of educational attainment differences between women and men on the gender wage gap. They show that wage gap in all categories of the educational background is higher than the total wage gap and argue that better educational background of female employees masks the gender gap. ...
... In other words, female workers have, on average, 1.25 years more education compared to male workers. This difference in educational attainment may have masked the gender disparities in the raw wage gap as argued by Tekgüç et al. (2017). In 2018, this difference declines to 0.74 years but the gender disparity in education continues. ...
This paper investigates the relation between female activity in the labor market and gender wage gaps using regional data from Turkey. Labor force participation of women in Turkey significantly lags behind the developed countries but is increasing. At the same time, raw gender wage gap is quite low in international standards but also increasing. I use the regional variation to analyze the relation between female labor force participation and wage gaps in two steps. First, I estimate the unexplained wage gap, which filters out the gender differences in productivity characteristics for each region and each year between 2009 and 2018, using Household Labor Force Survey data. Then I analyze the relation between gender gap with female labor force participation and other regional characteristics in a panel data regression. The results of the paper suggest that female labor force participation is positively related with both raw and unexplained wage gap. This positive relation partially stems from the fact that women with less unobservable skills or career motivation enter into labor force in the process of increase in female employment rate.
... The gender wage gap is another strand in wage inequality and Kara (2006), İlkkaracan and Selim (2007), Aktaş and Uysal (2016), and Tekgüç, Eryar and Cindoğlu (2017) Education was found as a notable factor behind wage inequality, and over the period, between-group wage inequality alleviated whereas within-group inequality deteriorated. By the same token, wage inequality at the lower end of the wage distribution decreased, and an increase at the upper end was obtained. ...
... The estimated wage gap is quite low for the bottom end of the distribution and increases towards the upper end; around 0.04 log points and 0.82 log points respectively. This is primarily due to the higher endowments women hold, and as shown by other studies, gender wage gap at the mean decreases significantly among the university graduates in full-time jobs (Tekguc et al., 2017). Our decomposition results confirm the endowment effect too. ...
The paper aims to identify the effect of non-standard employment on wages in the Turkish labour market across gender and decompose the gap to understand the role of endowments and returns in generating the earning differences. Our findings show that non-standard employment reduces wages for women at every quantile but no such results are attained for men. Besides, females with standard jobs in Turkey earn more than men, however, the opposite holds for females in non-standard positions. Also, a big part of the gender pay gap is attributable to returns, especially at the lower end of the distribution. Women in low-paid and atypical jobs face larger pay gaps, and the role of unexplained component suggests they are discriminated. The distinct impact of non-standard employment on men and women suggest that policies geared towards labour market flexibilisation should take gender perspective into account.
... The estimated wage gap is quite low for the bottom end of the distribution and increases towards the upper end; around 0.04 log points and 0.82 log points respectively. This is primarily due to the higher endowments women hold, and as shown by other studies, gender wage gap at the mean decreases significantly among the university graduates in full-time jobs (Tekguc et al., 2017). Our decomposition results confirm the endowment effect too. ...
The paper aims to identify the effect of non-standard employment on wages in the Turkish labour market across gender and decompose the gap to understand the role of endowments and returns in generating the earning differences. Our findings show that non-standard employment reduces wages for women at every quantile but no such results are attained for men. Besides, females with standard jobs in Turkey earn more than men, however, the opposite holds for females in non-standard positions. Also, a big part of the gender pay gap is attributable to returns, especially at the lower end of the distribution. Women in low-paid and atypical jobs face larger pay gaps, and the role of unexplained component suggests they are discriminated. The distinct impact of non-standard employment on men and women suggest that policies geared towards labour market flexibilisation should take gender perspective into account.
... Ancak gelir farklılığının %108'inin iĢgücü piyasasındaki ayrımcılıktan kaynaklandığını tespit etmiĢtir. Buna göre, kadınların, erkeklerle benzer insan sermayesi donanımına sahip olsalar bile, ücret düzeyinin belirlenmesinde iĢveren kaynaklı cinsiyet ayrımcılığına maruz kaldığı anlaĢılmaktadır Tekgüç, Eryar ve Cindoğlu (2017) ...
Parçalı bir
istihdam yapısına sahip olan sağlık sektörü özellikle kadın istihdamının
yoğunlaştığı sektörlerden biri olarak öne çıkmaktadır. Buna karşın sağlık
sektöründe kadınlar doğrudan veya dolaylı birçok konuda cinsiyete dayalı
ayrımcılığa maruz kalmaktadır. Bu ayrımcılıkların arasında sağlık sektöründe
cinsiyete dayalı ücret ayrımcılığı dikkati çekmektedir. Profesyonel meslek
mensupları arasında %35.9 ile sağlık sektöründe bazında cinsiyete dayalı
ayrımcılık ilk sırada yer almaktadır. Bunun sebepleri hem arz ve talebe ilişkin
özelliklere, hem de mesleki ayrımcılık ile ilişkilidir. Ankara ilinde yapılmış
alan araştırması bulgularına göre, sağlık sektöründe çalışan beyaz yakalı
kadınlar doğrudan cinsiyetçi ücret ayrımcılığına uğramadığı fakat ailevi
sorumlulukları nedeniyle çeşitli ayrımcılıklara maruz kaldığı bulunmuştur. Bu
bağlamda, beyaz yakalı kadınların ailevi öncelikleri nedeniyle erkeklerden daha
düşük ücret almayı kabul ettiği tespit edilmiştir. Diğer taraftan mavi
yakalılar arasında cinsiyete dayalı mesleki ayrımcılık ve bazı mesleklerinin
özellikle “erkek işi” olduğuna ilişkin görüşün yaygın olması nedeniyle önemli
bir cinsiyete dayalı ücret farklılığı tespit edilmiştir.
... A study from Turkey is mentioning the fact, that women opposed to men can be overqualified and in some cases and the educational background seems to make the difference in the gender pay gap (Tekgüç, Eryar, & Cindoğlu, 2017). Overeducation can be potentially damaging as on a personal level than on a socio-economical level (on the job and in the economy) and the tertiary graduates can be therefore at risk (Barone & Ortiz, 2011;Ortiz Gervasi & McGuinness, 2018). ...
Higher education is one of the major Europe 2020 strategies, and the target set by 2020 is that at least 40% of young people aged 30-34 should obtain higher education qualification. The amount of tertiary education graduates is growing for the last decades in Slovakia, however we do not exactly know if we achieve this target. The objective of the paper is to analyze the CVTI data and to forecast if we meet the European 2020 target until 2020. For this forecast we used trend analysis, breakpoint analysis and an autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model to forecast the amount of university graduates, until the year 2020. Our outcomes are showing, that the amount of male and female graduates will fall after 2020, therefore Slovakia will meet the target for females but the number of graduates will afterward decrease. However from the overall trend of both the male and female data and the outcome of ARIMA model as well we might see a potential future grow of graduates after 2020.
... Several studies show that education has a positive association with women's empowerment (Cindoğlu & Toktaş 2002;Wyndow, Li & Mattes 2013;Samarakoon & Parinduri 2015). A recent study on the gender wage gap in Turkey shows that attaining tertiary education is crucial for women to have better pay in the workplace, and more control over their lives (such as regarding marriage and fertility), and consequently to have higher empowerment than lesser educated women (Tekgüç, Eryar & Cindoğlu 2017). In light of these studies, we anticipate a positive relationship between education and women's empowerment in our analysis. ...
... It seems that household duties combined with work-related activities stand as a double whammy for Turkish women, in which being employed in exploitative work conditions turns out to be a liability, rather than an asset for their empowerment. Our finding verifies the scholars who argue that gendered labour divisions and the absence of work-family reconciliation measures (such as adequate day-care for children) creates huge obstacles for women to feel empowered (Ilkkaracan 2012;Tekgüç, Eryar & Cindoğlu 2017). As the women's empowerment index combines women's well-being in health, education, income, social life, and personal care, it is observed that being employed in a patriarchal and neoliberal society such as Turkey negatively correlates with women's happiness and empowerment in these areas. ...
This article analyses the state and determinants of women’s empowerment in Turkey, based on an extensive and representative survey with more than 100,000 participants. It creates an original index of women’s self-perceived empowerment, which incorporates empowerment measures on health, education, income, social life, and personal care and conducts multilevel analysis that integrates effects of individual-level factors with contextual, locality-specific forces. Multilevel analysis confirms the nested nature of women’s empowerment in Turkey, which depends on both individual attributes and on the locality in which a woman resides. The Turkish case analysed in this article offers insights for the state of women’s empowerment in societies replete with patriarchal norms and neoliberal policies.
The motherhood wage penalty refers to the wage differentials between mothers and women without children that cannot be attributed to differences in personal and job characteristics. The magnitude of the adverse impact of motherhood on women's wages depends on the institutional labor market framework of work-family balance and the cultural perception of maternal employment. The motherhood wage penalty is a potentially significant challenge for working mothers in the Turkish labor market, characterized by a low female labor force participation rate and a high gender wage gap. This study examines the motherhood wage penalty in Turkey on different wage levels by employing Buchinsky's (1998) quantile regression method with sample selection correction for the years 2018, 2019, and 2020 by taking into account education, experience, work intensity, and the relative wage level of the residing region. The study results showed that regular and casual wage earner mothers are subjected to different levels of motherhood wage penalties depending on their place in the wage distribution. Jel codes: J24, J31, J81 Keywords: Motherhood wage penalty, wage inequality, quantile regression, sample selection
TÜRKİYE'DE ANNELİK ÜCRET CEZASI Öz Annelik ücreti cezası, anne olan ve olmayan kadınlar arasındaki kişisel ve iş özelliklerindeki farklı-lıklarla açıklanamayan ücret farklılıklarını ifade eder. Anneliğin kadınların ücretleri üzerindeki olum-suz etkisinin boyutu, iş-aile dengesi bağlamında kurumsal işgücü piyasası yapısına ve anne istihda-mına yönelik kültürel algıya bağlıdır. Annelik ücreti cezası, kadınların işgücüne katılım oranının dü-şük ve cinsiyetler arası ücret farkının yüksek olduğu Türkiye işgücü piyasasında çalışan anneler için potansiyel olarak önemli bir zorluktur. Bu çalışma, Buchinsky'nin (1998) kantil regresyon yöntemini kullanarak 2018, 2019 ve 2020 yılları için Türkiye'de annelik ücreti cezasını eğitim, deneyim, iş yo-ğunluğu ve ikamet edilen bölgenin göreli ücret durumu dikkate alınarak örneklem seçimi düzeltmesi ile farklı ücret düzeylerinde incelemektedir. Araştırma sonuçları, ücretli ve yevmiyeli çalışan annele-rin ücret dağılımındaki yerlerine göre farklı düzeylerde annelik ücreti cezalarına maruz kaldıklarını göstermiştir. Jel Sınıflaması: J24, J31, J81
In the context of the internationalization of the labor market, the countries around the world have begun to focus on developing and implementing education policies that ensure the quality, coherence and equity of tertiary education. The main objective of this study is to identify and analyze the place of Romania between 35 European countries and Turkey, in terms of tertiary education. Cluster analysis has been used to achieve this goal, and the results indicate similarities and disparities between the countries analyzed. This article can be a reflection for decision-makers in the development of a skilled workforce..
