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LX3 improves adult microbiota recovery post-OTC exposure. a Principle component analysis (PCA) plot of the honey bee microbiota from adult and larval samples before (Pre-supp) and after (Post-supp) the supplementation period. Sequence variants were collapsed at species-level identification, with clr-transformed Aitchison distances used as input values for PCA analysis. Distance between individual samples (points) represent the difference in microbiota composition between samples, with 40.8% of variance explained by the first two principle components shown. Strength of association for taxa are depicted by length of corresponding arrows. b, c ALDEx2 effect plots comparing differences in relative abundance of SVs between groups (ΔA) plotted against the variance, or within-group difference, in relative abundance for each SV (Δw). Low variance SVs that cluster tightly together in adult microbiota samples largely represent well-established core microbiota members (see Supplementary Data 1 for list of corresponding SVs). d Alpha diversity determined by Shannon’s H Index (accounting for abundance and evenness), e Beta diversity measured via Aitchison’s distance (representing within-group microbiota differences), f species dominance (or unevenness) measured via Strong’s Dw Index, and g species richness as determined using the abundance-based coverage estimator (ACE) metric in QIIME2. h, i Differential abundance analysis on adult gut samples between the relative abundance of all core cluster SVs grouped together compared to all noncore SVs grouped together. Data represents median (line in box), IQR(box), and minimum/maximum (whiskers) of clr-transformed relative abundances with statistical comparisons performed by Kruskal–Wallis test with Benjamini–Hochberg multiple comparisons. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ns not significant.
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Widespread antibiotic usage in apiculture contributes substantially to the global dissemination of antimicrobial resistance and has the potential to negatively influence bacterial symbionts of honey bees (Apis mellifera). Here, we show that routine antibiotic administration with oxytetracycline selectively increased tetB (efflux pump resistance gen...
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... Several animal studies and human clinical trials have demonstrated the protective effect of specific strains of probiotic Lactobacillus against intestinal diseases, including antibiotic-associated diarrhea. For example, L. acidophilus can regulate antibiotic-induced intestinal flora disturbance and diarrhea in mice and immune and microbiome dysregulation in bees [35,36]. LAB NS8 can improve the damage of antibiotics to intestinal flora and play a key role in maintaining the balance of intestinal flora [37]. ...
In this study, four lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains demonstrating ciprofloxacin, bile salt, gastric fluid, and intestinal fluid tolerance as well as adhesion ability to Caco-2 and HT-29 cells were used to improve and recover the intestinal flora disorders caused by ciprofloxacin, among which, Lactobacillus brevis 505 exhibited excellent adhesion ability to two kinds of cells and colonization ability to mouse intestinal. After ciprofloxacin treatment, certain recovery effect on cecum caused by ciprofloxacin in the mice was found during natural recovery (group 5C2), but it was challenging to fully restore the intestinal integrity to the initial level. After L. brevis 505 intervention (group 5C5), the intestinal damage to the colon and ileum caused by ciprofloxacin in mice was significantly alleviated; the recovery effect was better than that of natural recovery. Additionally, L. brevis 505 could effectively regulate INF-γ, sIgA, and RegIIIγ increase induced by ciprofloxacin. Shannon and Simpson index of the intestinal flora of mice in 5C5 group were higher than those in other group, the relative abundance of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus in the mice in 5C5 group was increased, indicating that LAB can better restore the structure and abundance of intestinal microflora. Consequently, L. brevis 505 shows promise as a probiotic for gut microbiota restoration and rebuilding during antibiotic therapy.
... However, there are prospective applications for probiotics, such as Lactobacilli spp., which have been employed in honeybee colonies [22][23][24], with positive effects observed on honeybee activity, stress control, and queen brood production [23,[25][26][27][28]. ...
There is increasing interest in utilizing senolytics to selectively remove senescent cells from intestinal tissues, with the aim of maintaining a healthy gut environment during aging. This strategy underscores the potential of senolytics to enhance gut health by delaying intestinal aging and positively modulating gut microbiota. Certain plant-based phytochemicals have demonstrated promising senolytic effects. Beyond their ability to eliminate senescent cells, these compounds also exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, reducing oxidative stress and inflammation-key drivers of age-related diseases. By selectively removing senescent cells from the intestine, senolytic phytochemicals contribute to an improved intestinal inflammatory environment and promote the growth of a diverse microbial community. Ultimately, the dietary intake of these senolytic phytochemicals aids in maintaining a healthier intestinal microenvironment by targeting and clearing aged enterocytes.
... Another study in A. melifera showed that topical exposure to oxytetracycline depleted the symbionts Frischella perrera and Lactobacillus Firm-5 strains in bees and reduced antimicrobial capacity of bee hemolymph against Arthrobacter globiformis by 31.27% (Daisley et al., 2020b). This study further showed that in-hive supplementation with three immunostimulatory Lactobacillus strains could mitigate antibiotic-associated microbiota dysbiosis and immune deficits in adult workers (Daisley et al., 2020b). ...
... (Daisley et al., 2020b). This study further showed that in-hive supplementation with three immunostimulatory Lactobacillus strains could mitigate antibiotic-associated microbiota dysbiosis and immune deficits in adult workers (Daisley et al., 2020b). ...
Anthropogenic activities result in global change, including climate change, landscape degradation and pollution, that can alter insect physiology and immune defences. These changes may have contributed to global insect decline and the dynamics of insect‐transmitted diseases. The ability of insects to mount immune responses upon infection is crucial for defence against pathogens and parasites. Suppressed immune defences reduce fitness by causing disease‐driven mortality and elevated immune responses reduce energy available to invest in other fitness traits such as reproduction. Understanding the impact of anthropogenic factors on insect–pathogen interactions is therefore key to determining the contribution of anthropogenic global change to pathogen‐driven global insect decline and the emergence and transmission of insect‐borne diseases. Here, we synthesise evidence of the impact of anthropogenic factors on insect immunity. We found evidence that anthropogenic factors, such as insecticides and heavy metals, directly impacting insect immune responses by inhibiting immune activation pathways. Alternatively, factors such as global warming, heatwaves, elevated CO 2 and landscape degradation can indirectly reduce insect immune responses via reducing the energy available for immune function. We further review how anthropogenic factors impact pathogen clearance and contribute to an increase in vector‐borne diseases. We discuss the fitness cost of anthropogenic factors via pathogen‐driven mortality and reduced reproductive output and how this can contribute to species extinction. We found that most research has determined the impact of a single anthropogenic factor on insect immune responses or pathogen resistance. We recommend studying the combined impact of multiple stressors on immune response and pathogen resistance to understand better how anthropogenic factors affect insect immunity. We conclude by highlighting the importance of initiatives to mitigate the impact of anthropogenic factors on insect immunity, to reduce the spread of vector‐borne diseases, and to protect vulnerable ecosystems from emerging diseases.
... Disease prevention and manage the transmission of pathogens within and across apiaries, beekeepers often resort to treating their hives with antibiotics. This practice aims to minimize the spread of infections and protect the health of bee colonies, though it may also contribute to antibiotic residue issues in honey [13]. ...
Laboratory and field studies were carried out to assess the efficacy of the antibiotic tetracycline in preventing and managing American foulbrood (AFB) and European foulbrood (EFB) diseases in honey bees. Experiments with immature worker bees in the laboratory demonstrated that honey bee larvae could endure a broad range of antibiotic doses in their diet. The recommended dose of tetracycline (100 μg/ml) effectively protected young larvae from infection. However, once the dose exceeded this recommended level, it reached a point where it became lethal.
... Our confirmation of immune activation used a relatively broad assessment of antibacterial activity in the bee hemolymph, but it is known that different immune challenges can lead to different host gene expression profiles (67) that could precipitate such differences. The patterns for Gilliamella and Snodgrassella noted in our empirical study can be partially linked to prior findings in correlational analyses examining the influence of probiotic supple mentation on the microbiome and immune system of honeybees (96,97). Positive and negative associations were found between the expression of antimicrobial peptides and the abundances of Gilliamella and Snodgrassella, and several peptides, such as defen sin-2, abaecin, and lysozyme, produced correlations of differing direction or magnitude with the two bacteria (97). ...
... The patterns for Gilliamella and Snodgrassella noted in our empirical study can be partially linked to prior findings in correlational analyses examining the influence of probiotic supple mentation on the microbiome and immune system of honeybees (96,97). Positive and negative associations were found between the expression of antimicrobial peptides and the abundances of Gilliamella and Snodgrassella, and several peptides, such as defen sin-2, abaecin, and lysozyme, produced correlations of differing direction or magnitude with the two bacteria (97). A related study found that increased expression of several antimicrobial peptides was positively correlated with the abundance of Gilliamella, with correlations with Snodgrassella being weaker. ...
Understanding factors influencing the composition and maintenance of beneficial host-associated microbial communities is central to understanding their ecological, evolutionary, and health consequences for hosts. Host immunity is often implicated as a regulator of these microbiota, but immunity may also play a disruptive role, with responses to infection perturbing beneficial communities. Such effects may be more prominent from innate immune responses, with more rapid-acting and often non-specific components, compared to adaptive responses. We investigated how upregulation of antibacterial immunity in the bumble bee Bombus impatiens affects its core gut microbiota, testing the hypothesis that immunity-induced perturbation impacts the microbiota structure. Freshly emerged adult bees were fed a microbiota inoculum before receiving a non-pathogenic immune stimulation injection. We quantified microbial communities using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing and targeted quantitative PCR. Coarse community membership shows apparent robustness, but we find that immune stimulation alters the abundance of two core community members, Gilliamella and Snodgrassella. Moreover, a positive association in communities between these bacteria is perturbed following a Gram-negative challenge. The observed changes in the gut microbial community are suggestive of immune response-induced dysbiosis, linking ecological interactions across levels between hosts, their pathogens, and their beneficial gut microbiota. The potential for collateral perturbation of the natural gut microbiota following an innate immune response may contribute to immune costs, shaping the evolutionary optimization of immune investment depending on the ecological context.
IMPORTANCE
Our work demonstrates how innate immunity may influence the host-associated microbiota. While previous work has demonstrated the role of adaptive immunity in regulating the microbiota, we show that stimulation of an innate immune response in bumble bees may disrupt the native gut microbial community by shifting individual abundances of some members and pairwise associations. This work builds upon previous work in bumble bees demonstrating factors determining microbe colonization of hosts and microbiota membership, implicating immune response-induced changes as a factor shaping these important gut communities. While some microbiota members appear unaffected, changes in others and the community overall suggests that collateral perturbation of the native gut microbiota upon an innate immune response may serve as an additional selective pressure that shapes the evolution of host innate immunity.
... As an effort to complement the bee's natural tendency to keep their colonies disease free, many beekeepers (outside of Europe) use antibiotics, which can be immediately effective against certain pathogens, but these medicated treatments are tightly regulated due to concerns about residual accumulation in honey, as well as other offtarget side effects (Lima et al., 2020), including disruption of the natural bee gut microbiota which, paradoxically, can leave colonies more vulnerable to subsequent infection (Daisley et al., 2020;Raymann et al., 2017;Zhang et al., 2022a). Alternative disease management interventions in beekeeping include essential oils (Hybl et al., 2021), RNA interference technologies (Garbian et al., 2012) or variations of transgenerational immune priming (Dickel et al., 2022). ...
... Alberoni et al. (2016) summarize some of these effects, which include nutrient uptake, the production of fatty acids, amino acids and other metabolites, and protection of the host from pathogens and parasites, either by stimulating immune function or by directly inhibiting pathogen growth. Recent research has exploited this coevolved relationship between microbe and host − the holobiont − to demonstrate that strategic manipulation of the worker gut microbiome can help bees recover from dysbiosis (Daisley et al., 2020) and even bolster bee immunity to protect against further gutborne disease (Daisley et al., 2019;Raymann and Moran, 2018). Despite the prospect of microbial therapeutics, the idea of using gut microbe manipulations as a beekeeping tool has received relatively little research attention (Chmiel et al., 2021) and this despite the availability of some reportedly bee-friendly 'probiotic' products (Damico et al., 2023). ...
The holobiont theory of evolution explains how individuals are deeply symbiotic with their gut microbes, such that microbes are adapted to influence host metabolism, immunity and behaviour, as signalled from the gut to the brain. For eusocial taxa like the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera), this brain-gut axis may scale up from the individual to affect entire colonies. Here, we examine how microbial supplementation of honey bee feeds could manipulate the brain-gut axis to affect hygienic and other social behaviours relevant to beekeeping, such as foraging, recruitment (dance language) and defence. To illustrate this concept, we focus on various lactic acid-producing bacteria that can synthesize neurotransmitters such as octopamine, dopamine, serotonin and g-aminobutyric acid, which can influence an individual bee's behavioural cycles and responsiveness to environmental cues. If the behaviour of a worker bee can be deliberately manipulated, and this effect multiplied across many workers, microbial neurotherapeutics could conceivably render colonies more behaviourally responsive to symptoms of disease, or more motivated to forage or possibly less aggressive towards beekeepers. Drawing from the scientific literature, we infer how microbial supplements, such as neurostimulatory or neurosuppressive probiotics, could be applied or even engineered to co-opt the brain-gut axis to bolster colony health or improve performance. The mechanistic link between the gut microbiota and the collective social behaviour of single colonies remains an understudied aspect of honey bee social biology with relevance to apiculture.
... Several animal studies and human clinical trials have demonstrated the protective effect of speci c strains of probiotic Lactobacillus against intestinal diseases, including antibiotic-associated diarrhea. For example, L. acidophilus can regulate antibiotic-induced intestinal ora disturbance and diarrhea in mice and immune and microbiome dysregulation in bees [35,36] . LAB NS8 can improve the damage of antibiotics to intestinal ora and play a key role in maintaining the balance of intestinal ora [37] . ...
In this study, four lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains demonstrating ciprofloxacin, bile salt, gastric fluid and intestinal fluid tolerance; as well as adhesion ability to Caco-2 and HT-29 cells were used to improve and recover the intestinal flora disorders caused by ciprofloxacin. Among which, Lactobacillus brevis 505 exhibited excellent adhesion ability to two kinds of cells and colonization ability to mouse intestinal. After ciprofloxacin treatment, certain recovery effect on cecum caused by ciprofloxacin in the mice was found during natural recovery (group 5C2), but it was challenging to fully restore the intestinal integrity to the initial level. After L. brevis 505 intervention (group 5C5), the intestinal damage to the colon and ileum caused by ciprofloxacin in mice was significantly alleviated, the recovery effect was better than that of natural recovery. Additionally, L. brevis 505 could effectively regulate INF-γ, sIgA and RegⅢγ increase induced by ciprofloxacin. Shannon and Simpson index of the intestinal flora of mice in 5C5 group were higher than those in other group, the relative abundance of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus in the mice in 5C5 group was increased, indicating that LAB can better restore the structure and abundance of intestinal microflora. Consequently, L. brevis 505 shows promise as a probiotic for gut microbiota restoration and rebuilding during antibiotic therapy.
... In the honey bee, LAB plays a protective role against pathogens [58], and supports respiratory requirements in cockroaches [59,60]. Lactobacillus lactis (LX3) enhanced the expression of genes responsible for antimicrobial peptides, improved productivity, and boosted the immune response in adult bees [61]. Therefore, a higher abundance of the LAB in different diet groups can be considered a marker for diet quality. ...
These authors contributed equally to this work. Abstract: Honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) health is crucial for honey bee products and effective pollination , and it is closely associated with gut bacteria. Various factors such as reduced habitat, temperature, disease, and diet affect the health of honey bees by disturbing the homeostasis of the gut microbiota. In this study, high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing was used to analyze the gut microbiota of honey bees subjected to seven diets over 5 days. Lactobacillus dominated the microbiota in all diets. Cage experiments (consumption, head protein content, and vitellogenin gene expression level) were conducted to verify the effect of the diet. Through a heatmap, the Diet2 (probiotic-supplemented) group was clustered together with the Beebread and honey group, showing high consumption (177.50 ± 26.16 mg/bee), moderately higher survival duration (29.00 ± 2.83 days), protein content in the head (312.62 ± 28.71 µg/mL), and diet digestibility (48.41 ± 1.90%). Additionally , we analyzed the correlation between gut microbiota and health-related indicators in honey bees fed each diet. Based on the overall results, we identified that probiotic-supplemented diets increased gut microbiota diversity and positively affected the overall health of individual honey bees.
... Honeybees are crucial for pollination and maintaining ecosystem stability, yet they are facing stress from various biotic and abiotic factors. These stressors include pathogens, parasites, agro-chemicals, climate change, and human activities, all of which can adversely affect their health and hive productivity (Daisley et al., 2020). Additionally, the overuse or misuse of antibiotics in apiculture has raised concerns about antibiotic resistance and the accumulation of antibiotic residues in honeybee products (Alberoni et al., 2018;Daisley et al., 2020). ...
... These stressors include pathogens, parasites, agro-chemicals, climate change, and human activities, all of which can adversely affect their health and hive productivity (Daisley et al., 2020). Additionally, the overuse or misuse of antibiotics in apiculture has raised concerns about antibiotic resistance and the accumulation of antibiotic residues in honeybee products (Alberoni et al., 2018;Daisley et al., 2020). These concerns have led researchers to explore natural alternatives to conventional treatments to enhance honeybee health (Alberoni et al., 2018). ...
... A previous study has emphasized the importance of a balanced gut microbiota in maintaining honeybee health . Honeybees, like other animals, possess a distinct core microbiota that influences their health Daisley et al., 2020). A healthy gut microbiome supports bees through various metabolic, trophic, and protective functions Baffoni et al., 2016;Motta et al., 2022;Wu et al., 2020). ...
Beneficial bacteria are vital for maintaining honeybee health by outcompeting pathogenic microorganisms, boosting immunity, and enhancing resilience to diseases. Identifying the specific bacterial strains associated with honeybees enables the development of targeted probiotics that can improve the health of bees and humans. The present study describes the isolation and identification of bacterial strains from Apis cerana honeybees in Hanoi, Vietnam, utilizing a culture-based method, Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption-Ionization Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF) analysis, and 16S rRNA sequencing. MALDI-TOF analysis revealed several beneficial bacterial species, including Lactobacillus kunkeei, Lactobacillus plantarum, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Leuconostoc citreum, Bacillus subtilis, and Bacillus megaterium. Antimicrobial spectrum analysis showed that 16 out of the 23 identified isolates exhibited inhibitory effects against tested bacteria. Selected isolates with broad antimicrobial spectra, including L. kunkeei, L. plantarum, P. pentosaceus, L. mesenteroides, L. citreum, and B. subtilis, were further validated through 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The results confirmed the identity of these strains, emphasizing the probiotic potential of L. kunkeei, L. plantarum, L. mesenteroides, L. citreum, P. pentosaceus, and B. subtilis for honeybee health. Our findings provide valuable insights into the bacterial diversity and antimicrobial properties associated with honeybees, suggesting their use as probiotics in beekeeping and beyond.
... Considering that bees feed almost exclusively on syrup after autumn feeding, it is likely that a microbiota disturbed by an antimicrobial (such as Fumidil B ® , used at the end-of-season feeding) will have difficulty returning to a homeostasis state. Overall, significant impairments in the honeybee microbiota have been repeatedly associated with the use of antibiotics such as tetracycline-derived compounds [7,51]. Collectively, these studies highlight that frequently used antibiotics reduce both the abundance and genetic diversity of microbiota strains. ...
Against a backdrop of declining bee colony health, this study aims to gain a better understanding of the impact of an antimicrobial (Fumidil B®, Can-Vet Animal Health Supplies Ltd., Guelph, ON, Canada) and a probiotic (Bactocell®, Lallemand Inc., Montreal, QC, Canada) on bees’ microbiota and the health of their colonies after wintering. Therefore, colonies were orally exposed to these products and their combination before wintering in an environmental room. The results show that the probiotic significantly improved the strength of the colonies in spring by increasing the total number of bees and the number of capped brood cells. This improvement translated into a more resilient structure of the gut microbiota, highlighted by a more connected network of interactions between bacteria. Contrastingly, the antimicrobial treatment led to a breakdown in this network and a significant increase in negative interactions, both being hallmarks of microbiota dysbiosis. Although this treatment did not translate into a measurable colony strength reduction, it may impact the health of individual bees. The combination of these products restored the microbiota close to control, but with mixed results for colony performance. More tests will be needed to validate these results, but the probiotic Bactocell® could be administrated as a food supplement before wintering to improve colony recovery in spring.
