Fig 1 - available via license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported
Content may be subject to copyright.
Source publication
Various fabric properties are important for different sports applications. In order to improve fabric performance the focus is more on the material features of fabrics rather than the pattern. Fabric properties like moisture management, air permeability, and stretchability depend not only on the materials (the polymer) but also on their assembly in...
Context in source publication
Context 1
... comfort and the durability of sportswear depend greatly on the fabrics used with comfort level of a fabric determined by its texture, smoothness and moisture management. The durability of sports garments will depend on the mechanical properties of the fabric. Sports garments require an appropriate level of material engineering where with considerations into material composition of fabric, type of yarn, fiber diameter as well as cross-section of fibers [1]. Sport compression garments are an example of how fabric selection and implementation are able to enhance athletic performance and recovery. During activity, compression garments apply pressure which can decrease muscle oscillation and accelerate blood circulation in the locations covered by the fabric [2, 3]. Post exercise, compression garments promote the clearance of blood lactate and reduce the effects of exercise induced muscle damage (EIMD) which can improve an athlete’s recovery process [4, 5]. This implies an athlete can resume training faster from wearing compression garments. In addition to improving performance and recovery, material researchers also incorporate UV protection, moisture management and antimicrobial properties into the fabric to enhance comfort. The type of knitting patterns chosen in making the fabric makes a difference. The thinner the yarn used, the finer the surface texture. In contrast, the thicker the yarn, the more visible the stitches [6]. Naturally, the type of knits will affect the comfort level of the wearer. The most commonly used classes of knitting patterns consist of warp knitting and weft knitting (Fig. 1). Another class of less prevalent knits, is called a Circular knit. Warp knit is constructed in a way where the yarns are stitched lengthways, in a zig-zag pattern. The loops are interlocked in a lengthwise direction [7]. Due to its zig-zag knitting across different columns, the knits are usually done by machine. Contrastingly, weft knit is knitted by having the yarns stitched width-wise, across the fabric. Some examples of weft knits are plain knits or rib knits [8]. The third class of knits that is relevant to this project is circular knit. These knits can produce tube forms that are seamless [9], since most knitted garments are in tube forms such as arm sleeves or socks. Similarly to weft knits, circular knits can be done either hand-made or by machine. Moisture management in sport fabrics essentially refers to how well material is transporting moisture out of the fabric and keeping the wearer dry during exercise. The moisture remaining in the fabric can further increase body temperature leading to more perspiration. The ultimate objective of managing moisture in fabrics is to ensure moisture is transported to the outer surface in the shortest possible time. Once transporting outwards, the moisture should spread to a large surface area and evaporate as fast as possible with the wearer experiencing a feeling of dryness [9]. The two important criteria tested for fabrics performance in this respect are: 1. One-way transport Index: fabric’s ability to transport water from ‘inside’ to ‘outside’. It is calculated with by relative amount (% weight) of water transported (across the fabric) as compared to fabric sample’s weight. 2. Overall Moisture Management Capacity (OMMC): fabric’s overall capacity to wick moisture from ‘inside’ to ‘outside’, spread and absorb it over the fabric’s outer surface and dry. OMMC is a unitless quantity and usually ranges between zero to one. A total of 12 fabric samples were obtained from various fabric suppliers which served different applications. The fabric samples were subjected to tensile testing and moisture management tests. Samples 1 to 9 represented sports compression garments and fabrics 10 to 12 represented other sportswear applications ranging from caps to T-shirts. The knitting patterns of these fabric samples were identified through a Leica optical microscope at 1.25X magnification. Densities of the fabric samples were taken qualitatively from microscopy images and rated using a fabric density scale of 1 to 5 (Fig. 2), with 1 being the lowest density and 5 being the sample with the highest density. Tensile testing was conducted using the Instron 5567 and performed on the individual fabric samples. Each sample was shaped using a dumbbell cutter which allowed the sample dimensions to follow the ASTM D638-V standard. The samples were pulled at a rate of 20mm/minute. Moisture management properties of the fabric samples were performed using Moisture Management Tester (MMT) from SDL Atlas Ltd. The samples were first cut into 8cm x 8cm pieces. Artificial sweat was dripped onto the fabric from a nozzle for 20secs, and data was collected for 2 minutes each time. All the fabric samples were tested for Overall Moisture Management Capacity (OMMC) and One-way Transport Index while fabric samples 1 to 9 were tested for mechanical tests including Modulus, Stress at maximum load and Strain at maximum load. The following table (Table 1) summarizes the values from all the tests performed on the fabric samples: Knitting pattern is believed to have an effect on a fabric’s mechanical properties and compression characteristics. Eight (samples 1 to 8) out of the nine samples tested for mechanical tests, which had circular knit, showed higher modulus (0.156 to 0.382 MPa) while sample 9 (with basic stockinette knit) showed much lower modulus (0.054 MPa). This implies that a circular knitting pattern could have better mechanical (and resulting compression) properties than basic stockinette knitting patterns. The effect of knitting pattern on moisture management properties is not very clear as other parameters, such as the type of fabric, also contribute significantly to fabric’s moisture management properties. Moreover, for samples 1 to 9, the two layers had different knitting patterns making it difficult to establish a trend based on knitting pattern. From the limited results, trends exist showing warp knitting relating to increased moisture management properties (both OMMC and One-way Transport Index). In general, circular knits have higher densities than warp knits. The effect of knitting density on any of the mechanical properties tested in this study did not show any trend among the first nine samples (samples 1 to 9). For moisture management properties, samples 1 to 9 did not show any trend with knitting density, with all of them showing very low OMMC (Overall Moisture Management Capacity) and One-way Transport Index. Among samples 10 to 12, higher density may be related to better moisture management properties (both OMMC and One-way Transport Index). This can be attributed to the requirement of sufficient capillary pressure (which can be created by smaller gaps) for fabric’s wicking action, a critical part of moisture management properties. Currently, our results indicate no prominent trends in mechanical properties of samples in relation to knitting densities. The circular knitting pattern tends to show superior mechanical properties when compared to a warp knitting pattern. Among compression fabrics, there currently seems to be no specific effects on moisture management properties when different knitting densities of the fabrics are compared. However, warp knitting tends to be a more effective knitting pattern for moisture management than circular knitting. Warp knit fabrics also seem to follow a trend: ‘higher the density, better moisture management by the ...
Similar publications
An ideal sportswear which requires extensive moisture management characteristics can be a composite having such properties. In this investigation nine different linear density combinations of double layer knitted fabrics have been taken into consideration for the study of moisture management behavior. The effect of, yarn linear density on moisture...
This study investigates the effect of material composition on moisture management properties. Fiber type has significant influence on the moisture management properties of knitted fabrics. In this article, single jerseys knitted fabric samples with different yarn compositions were prepared. Liquid moisture transportation properties including wettin...
Citations
... There is a strong correlation between the mechanical characteristics of the fabric and its generated pressure. It is well recognized that mechanical properties of a knitted fabric are related to the geometry of the knitted elements, knitted pattern, properties of the yarns used for knitting, and direction in which elastomeric yarns are laid in the fabric structure as well as the direction in which the fabric is used [14,15]. To generate compression and to achieve better performance of compression support, extra inlay-yarns are inserted into the construction of a knit as inlaid, floated, or plated yarns. ...
Textile-based heaters have opened new opportunities for next-generation smart heating devices. This experiment presents electrically conductive textiles for heat generation in orthopaedic compression supports. The main goal was to investigate the influence of frequent washing and stretching on heat generation durability of constructed compression knitted structures. The silver coated polyamide yarns were used to knit a half-Milano rib structure containing elastomeric inlay-yarn. Dimensional stability of the knitted fabric and morphological changes of the silver coated electro-conductive yarns were investigated during every wash cycle. The results revealed that temperature becomes stable within two minutes for all investigated fabrics. The heat generation was found to be dependent on the stretching, mostly due to the changing surface area; and it should be considered during the development of heated compression knits. Washing negatively influences the heat-generating capacity on the fabric due to the surface damage caused by the mechanical and chemical interaction during washing. The higher number of silver-coated filaments in the electro-conductive yarn and the knitted structure, protecting the electro-conductive yarn from mechanical abrasion, may ensure higher durability of heating characteristics.
... The use of fabrics with dynamic moisture properties improve the wearer's thermal comfort, and sports bras should have good moisture management properties (Tiwari et al. 2013). Therefore, moisture wicking fibers and fabrics are commonly used for sports bras, along with fabrics designed to allow ventilation (Watkins and Dunne 2015). ...
... As a garment worn close to the skin, the seams constructing the sports bras have been found to be uncomfortable, therefore seamless knitted designs made with circular knitting machines emerged (Yip and Yu 2006). Seamless circular knitting machines have been the primary technology used for manufacturing compression sport bras, due to achieving uniform compression levels around the body (Tiwari et al. 2013). The addition of spandex yarns in circular knitted fabrics create a compressive fit that is maintained without deformation during the product life (Lau and Yu 2016). ...
... Many studies reported properties of knitted fabrics made of various fibers and yarns capable of absorbing moisture (Troynikov and Wardiningsih 2011;Tiwari et al. 2013;Venkatraman 2015). Commercial sports bras contain elastane, polyamide, or polyester fibers that are lightweight, easy to wash, dimensionally stable, and dry quickly (Zhou et al. 2013). ...
Women prefer to wear a sports bra not only for exercising, but also during resting and daily activities, highlighting deficiencies in current sports bra designs. The purpose of this study was to design, develop, and evaluate a sports bra that offers responsive behavior, in terms of breast support and comfort, both during rest and running conditions. A biomimetic design framework guided the conceptual phase, and moisture responsive plant biomechanics offered a feasible functional model. Fourteen sports bras were developed and wear- tested using college athletes. The moisture responsive panels inside the bra absorbed the sweat generated during running, making the fabric thicker when wet (statistically significant via 3D body scanning results), while maintaining comfort and perceived breast support through sweaty conditions (confirmed via questionnaire results). Adjustments to the underbust band tightness should be pursued, aiming to further improve sports bra functionality, promoting women health and their lifestyles.
... Further to conventional products related to clothing, the increasing popularity of knitted fabrics allowed its insertion in the fashion market, and compared to other industries in the textile segment, knitting is the sector that provides greater development of new products [1]. Some examples are vascular protheses [10]; high-performance sporting products, such as threedimensional knitted structures to provide impact absorption, thermal comfort, and flexibility [11][12][13][14]; insertion of electronics in knitted structures, so that the resulting products monitor the user, such as the quality of his breathing, step count, heartbeat [15,16]; ...
... To produce 16kg according to the technical datasheet (80% efficiency) 11 Cutting fabric (after finished) 1 1 ...
The textile industry is composed by a complex chain, which comprises several sectors. Each area presents its particularities during product development. Among the sectors, one that stands out is the knitting, as it presents some advantages in relation to the others, such as low financial investment employed, in addition to being very versatile. However, this sector still has many activities carried out manually. Nowadays, technological innovations have opened the way for realizing the smart factory vision with the fourth industrial revolution, which has significant potential to change the whole manufacturing processes and business models. Thus, the objective of this study is to present a new configuration for the knitwear segment, which includes concepts related to industry 4.0 integrated with the processes of the textile sector. For that, a knitting industrial layout plan was developed using the Factory IO® software, in order to operate with autonomy and connectivity through the use of emerging technologies. Based
on this, compared to the empirical data of a conventional knitting industry, an increase in the control of the processes in real time of the product quality and operator ergonomics are expected, estimating a gain in time of approximately 27%, in addition to data storage.
... Over the last few years, sales of casual and sports clothing have been growing all over the world, so manufacturers and researchers have devoted studies to this field [1][2][3][4][5]. While fashion is the key element in selecting daily clothing, clothing comfort has become a crucial parameter for sports clothing [6,7]. ...
This research focused on the investigation of the thermophysiological comfort properties of four selected knitted fabrics of different fiber blend ratios suitable for cycling wear. Comfort-related properties of the fabrics were determined and compared including air permeability, moisture management properties, drying time, thermal conductivity, and water vapor permeability. For those comfort properties of the fabric to be correlated, fabric structural properties, fabric density, fabric weight, and fabric thickness have been considered. Suited fabrics should have good air permeability, thermal conductivity, moisture management properties, and short drying time. According to the measurement results, the fabric polyamide/elastane (58/42 PA6.6/EL) with good air permeability, thermal conductivity, moisture management properties, and short drying time was more suited for summer cycling clothing. Furthermore, this paper provides a new understanding of considerations that are needed for several end uses involving specific activity levels.
... Over the last few years, sales of casual and sports clothing have been growing all over the world, so manufacturers and researchers have devoted studies to this field [1][2][3][4][5]. While fashion is the key element in selecting daily clothing, clothing comfort has become a crucial parameter for sports clothing [6,7]. ...
This research focused on the investigation of the thermophysiological comfort properties of four selected knitted fabrics of different fiber blend ratios suitable for cycling wear. Comfort-related properties of the fabrics were determined and compared including air permeability, moisture management properties, drying time, thermal conductivity, and water vapor permeability. For those comfort properties of the fabric to be correlated, fabric structural properties, fabric density, fabric weight, and fabric thickness have been considered. Suited fabrics should have good air permeability, thermal conductivity, moisture management properties, and a short drying time. According to the measurement results, the fabric polyamide/elasane (58/42 PA6.6/EL) with good air permeability, thermal conductivity, moisture management properties, and short drying time was more suited for summer cycling clothing. Furthermore, this paper provides a new understanding of considerations that are needed for several end uses involving specific activity levels.
... 4 Most studies of the factors that cause lesions during hiking analyze extrinsic factors, such as the materials that footwear and socks are made of, or the terrain of the hike. 20,21 Few studies have examined a combination of the preexisting physical factors that can condition the development of foot lesions in hikers. ...
Abstract
Hiking has become very popular due to the physical and mental health benefits it provides. Skin lesions may occur with
hiking and various factors contribute to their development. Although some lesions may appear to have little importance,
something as simple as chaffing can cause serious ulcers in people with at-risk feet. Few studies have analyzed preexisting
physical characteristics in hiking and addressed the development of lesions in hikers. This observational and longitudinal
study examines the development of foot lesions during hiking, taking into account the influence of existing skin disorders,
nail disorders, and/or toe deformities and other intrinsic factors of participants. The feet of 109 hikers doing a 29.6-km
hike were analyzed, considering the intrinsic factors of participants and the possible influence of these factors in the
development of foot lesions during the walk. The results show that some preexisting physical factors of participants such
as gender, existing systemic disease, preexisting keratosis, dermatosis, nontraumatic and traumatic onychopathies, and toe
deformities significantly predispose to the development of skin lesions. These factors also predispose to muscle lesions
except for nontraumatic and traumatic onychopathies and toe deformities. Due to the influence of preexisting physical
factors, such as preexisting keratosis, dermatosis, and toe deformities, in the development of foot lesions in hikers, it is
worthwhile and advisable to check these factors before a hike to reduce the incidence of foot disorders. Ensuring adequate
podiatry treatment a few days before the walk and warmup of muscles properly before starting are recommended.
... Eliminating seams, especially cup and side seams, provides not only comfort, but also performance support by achieving uniform compression levels around the body [14,15,22,23]. This technology also brings new stitching patterns and knitting structures to create 3D forms, that furthermore proved to affect the compression levels [16]. Compression garments for sportswear have become widely available providing increased comfort, fit and muscle support [12]. ...
... Moreover, the two bras that were tested had slightly different knitted stitch patterns. Literature showed that knitting patterns may affect wearing compression results [16]. Multiple factors involved in bra sizing and fitting as well as the variety of body shapes and exercise types add complexity and limitation to such study. ...
Towards Developing a Method for Identifying Static Compression Levels of Seamless Sports Bras using 3D Body Scanning
Adriana Gorea and Fatma Baytar
Iowa State University
Department of Apparel, Events and Hospitality Management
agorea@iastate.edu , baytar@iastate.edu
Keywords: Compression, body scanning, sports bra
Abstract
Sports bras are functional garments designed to reduce repetitive movements of breasts during physical activity. Understanding the factors influencing breast support is necessary for future development of better functioning sports bras to prevent wearers from soreness and pain. Compression was found to be the most effective factor in controlling the breast support. Moreover, respiratory state was reported to be significantly affecting bra size and comfort. Therefore, our pilot study explored how females’ breast area measurements change when wearing seamless sports bras of different support levels. Two medium-size seamless sports bras with low and medium compression (i.e. breast support) levels were tested with and without removable pads. A [TC]2 NX-16 3D body scanner was used to scan three females, with three different cup sizes, with and without wearing bras. Additionally, for each condition participants were scanned at fully inhaled and relaxed (neutral) positions. In order to identify compression rate changes among various conditions, twenty-one slice measurements taken at 0.25” intervals between under bust and armpit levels were collected and compared. The compression rates for each slice level were calculated by subtracting the slice circumference from the no bra circumference, and dividing the result by the no bra measurement. Our preliminary findings showed that the highest compression rates were achieved without pads, in both relaxed (5.06%) and inhale conditions (4.73%), at levels below bust height. Cumulative compression rates over all levels also showed higher compression rates for the bras without pads. Visual analyses revealed smoother contour lines and a more uniform distribution of compression all around the body for the medium support bra as compared to the low support bra for both with and without pads conditions (Figure 1).
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Four consecutive slices between under bust and bust levels (with pads in inhale condition) showing (a) uniform compression distribution around the body for medium support bra, and (b) contour irregularities for low support bra.
... Moisture management of fabrics not only depends on the materials, but also on their assembly in the fabric. In case of knitted fabrics, warp knitting tends to be a more effective knitting pattern for moisture management than circular knitting [19]. Multi-layers fabric of hydrophilic and hydrophobic material was developed in order to improve its moisture management [20,21]. ...
In this work we studied the effect of surface treated fabric by applying Microcrystalline Cellulose (MCC) Particles using two different procedures. The first method was to dissolve MCC particles and form a MCC solution which further was blended with a textile binder to obtain the fabric coating. The second treatment was direct blending MCC particles with same textile binder in order to get the fabric finishing to be sprayed on the fabric surface. The percentage of MCC particles was chosen 6%, as this ratio can be considered the most appropriate one. The effect of these treatments on fabrics moisture wettability with varying percentage of coating was studied. It was concluded that the second method by spraying MCC Particles directly on the fabric surface gives superior improved fabric's wettability and moisture management than solving the MCC and coating the fabric surface. The morphological study using SEM confirmed the presence of MCC particles on the fabric surface; therefore, intensification fiber surface energy leads to increase the wicking properties and increase the rate of water absorption. ª 2015 Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Purpose
This study aims to investigate if engineered compression variations using moisture-responsive knitted fabric design can improve breast support in seamless knitted sports bras.
Design/methodology/approach
An experimental approach was used to integrate a novel moisture-responsive fabric panel into a seamless knitted bra, and the resulting compression variability in dry versus wet conditions were compared with those of a control bra. Air permeability and elongation testing of between breasts fabric panels was conducted in dry and wet conditions, followed by three-dimensional body scanning of eight human participants wearing the two bras in similar conditions. Questionnaires were used to evaluate perceived comfort and breast support of both bras in both conditions.
Findings
Air permeability test results showed that the novel panel had the highest variance between dry and wet conditions, confirming its moisture-responsive design, and increased its elongation coefficient in both wale and course directions in wet condition. There were significant main effects of bra type and body location on breast compression measurements. Breast circumferences in the novel bra were significantly larger than in the control bra condition. The significant two-way interaction between bra type and moisture condition showed that the control bra lost compressive power in wet condition, whereas the novel bra became more compressive when wet. Changes in compression were confirmed by participants’ perception of tighter straps and drier breast comfort.
Originality/value
These findings add to the limited scientific knowledge of moisture adaptive bra design using engineered knitted fabrics via advanced manufacturing technologies, with possible applications beyond sports bras, such as bras for breast surgery recovering patients.
