Inverted- U of the Yerkes-Dodson’s law. 

Contexts in source publication

Context 1

... intend to be able to refute these erroneous misconceptions about metaphors throughout our article, which will be organised into three parts. The first will deal with different approaches to the mechanisms of figurative language (versus literal language), as well as a possible view on the traditional tropes. On the second part, we will focus on the perspective of cognitive linguistics, namely in line with the work of Lakoff & Johnson and their renowned work “Metaphors we live by” (1980), their conceptual metaphor theory and the types of metaphors they put forth. At last, attention shall be placed upon the actual instances of metaphorical expres- sions about food in the Portuguese Language. These were gathered from numerous resources online, cross-checked with paper reference works, so as to achieve the list in Annex 1. From this list, 10 expressions were selected and analysed according to their meaning and explained in view of conceptual metaphor theory principles. As mentioned above, metaphors are included in the context of figurative language as opposed to literal language. Despite being rather complex and evasive concepts, it is commonly accepted that the meaning attached to literal language arises from general language words used by speakers on a daily basis, whereas figurative language deliberately interferes in the literal system by means of transference, which aims at reaching a new meaning, both broader and more precise. Therefore, speakers first and foremost access the literal meaning of a word or sentence and only then do they activate the non-literal meaning, when “there is a mismatch of literal meaning with context” (Giora, 1999, p. 920), being thus optional. The idea of transference and its various forms are termed tropes or figures of speech. Fontanier (cit. Santos, 1998, p. 190; cit. Contenças, 1999, pp. 44-45) sup- ported the idea that the metaphor is the one-word trope, opposed to the other multiple-word tropes. In line with the idea of tropes, Hawkes (1972: p. 5) distin- guishes metaphor from three similar tropes: simile, synecdoche and metonymy. In similes, the transference has already been achieved, i.e. the transfer of meaning is explained by means of “as” or “like” in English and como in Portuguese. For in- stance, “as light as a feather” = leve como uma pena ; “eat like a horse” = comer como um porco 2 . In this process, the relation between the words involved becomes more visual and, due to this, it is often regarded as a lesser form of metaphors, because it merely expresses an analogy or moves the name of an object to something that is closely associated with it. In relation to synecdoche, this is generally seen as a lexical or lexical-semantic process based on meronymy (part-whole relationship), while metaphors and me- tonymies depend on different types of synonymy. If the synecdoche results from a possessive process (i.e. it has/ it possesses), the metaphor entails an intense relational process, where an identity is established. Notice the synecdoche “head of depart- ment” that in Portuguese becomes representante/coordenador de departamento , losing thus its metaphorical nature. In terms of the metonymy, Halliday (1991, p. 319) argues that body parts are frequently used with a metonymical function, in which the relations established are of varied nature, such as cause, source or instrument. Kövecses (2002, p. 145) understands metonymy as a cognitive process in which a conceptual entity, the vehicle, provides the mental access to another mental entity, the target, within the same cognitive domain. The entities of vehicle and target are metonymically related, because they are close to each other in the cognitive space. Metonymies result in the transference of the name of an object to take the place of something else that is associated with it. An example is “We need a new glove to play third base”, which means that a new baseball player is necessary, represented by one of the items that make up this sport’s equipment – the glove. As a result, Kövecses (2002, p. 147) considers that metonymies are not used to understand a domain, but, in fact, to mentally and cognitively gain access to a more abstract target by means of a more concrete vehicle that is available in the same domain, because the relation is one of contiguity, as is shown in figure 1. On the other hand, the same author (Kövecses, 2002, p. 147) states that the metaphorical process is established between two concepts that belong to different conceptual domains. The entities that are related in a metaphor establish a relation of similarity, which can be originated in a real resemblance or correlations per- ceived in experience. The main function of a metaphor is to enable to understand something in terms of something else, which means that one conceptual domain is regarded in relation to another conceptual field, by creating systematic mappings between the elements of the source and the target (see figure 2). Therefore, as Martin (cit. Silva, 1992, p. 314) puts it, the metaphorical relation consists of the identity established between at least one of the semes in two dif- ferent sememes 3 and the derived sememe is comparable, analogous and similar. On the other hand, the metonymical relation corresponds to the reappearance of the basic sememe in the derived sememe. The distinction between the relation of correspondence, connection and similarity will refer to metonymy, synecdoche and metaphor, respectively. Consequently, metaphors are a means to take language from within literal lan- guage and establish a relation between two objects through the use of words with a figurative meaning, different from the traditional lexicographical meaning, thus Vilela’s idea that (2001, p. 174) polysemous language stems from the metaphorical use of words. Hawkes (1972, p. 71-72) upholds that the difference between figura- tive and literal language is more of degree than of type of language. Language can be defined as an organic and autonomous system that separates and classifies speakers’ lives and creates reality at their own image. This is a trans- fer process, because language in itself is necessarily metaphorical by virtue of this replacement of reality, as Nietzsche (cit. Miguens, 2002, p. 76) points out. Hawkes (1972, p. 59) stresses that metaphors are not something special or exceptional in linguistic use or a deviance in literal language, but rather a function of language, the way in which language works. This is what Richards, quoted by Honeck (in Hoffman & Honeck, 1980, p. 31), calls “the omnipresent principle of language”, since the verbal metaphor is the most basic product of the metaphorical apprehen- sion of the world. Metaphors appear as a way to experience facts, a way to think and live, an imaginative projection of truth. This is the distinguishing feature of cognitive linguistics, namely Lakoff and Johnson’s approach, that metaphors are inseparable from language which is virtually all metaphorical, and that reality results from the metaphorical interaction between words and daily life. In the words of Vilela (1996, pp. 324-325), Cognitive Linguistics does not intend to focus on the history of metaphor, but rather on the definition of metaphors from a linear perspective, in their relation to metonymy and synecdoche, demonstrat- ing that these three tropes are essential for human language for putting forth new creations and as a means to enrich the processes of organising reality. As a result, cognitivists gave new life to information that was no longer new: on the one hand, linguistic structures and units make up and depend on the conceptualisation of reality, and, on the other hand, they influence this conceptualisation, which is done through the establishment of prototypes, stereotypes and similarities. There is then continuity and a relation of dependence between language and the remaining cogni- tive skills, e.g. conceptualisation, categorisation, memory, attention, among others. It is in this context that Lakoff & Johnson developed their metaphor theory: they studied metaphors in light of the cognitive contributions related to the nature of the mind, being opposed to the myth of objectivism and Chomskyan linguistics. Therefore, in the words of Miguens (2002, p. 86), metaphors no longer come up as accidents with a residual interest, but metaphoricity is omnipresent and systematic in natural languages. Lakoff & Johnson (1980, pp. 3-5) sustain that metaphors have been traditionally regarded as a tool for poetic imagination and rhetorical flourish, being an issue of figurative language. However, apart from being a linguistic issue, metaphors are ultimately a question of thought and action, since metaphors are involved in all aspects of life, language, thought and cultural acts. Our conceptual system, according to which we think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical. Because communication is based on our conceptual system, language comes up as a strong evidence of this system. The essence of metaphors is based on the understanding and experience of one thing in accordance to another, thus concepts and activities are structured metaphorically, as is language. In line with Lakoff & Johnson, Vilela (2001, pp. 174-175) believes that the mean- ing of words is not equivalent to an ...

Context 2

... are concerned about lack of vocabulary and inability to retrieve appropriate words and expressions on the spot, especially when their performance was monitored (Ohata, 2005b). Accordingly, Horwitz et al. (1991, p. 31) assert that because “complex and non-spontaneous mental operations” are required to communicate in foreign language, thus any performance in the L2 is likely to challenge one’s self concept as an effective communicator and lead to nega- tive feelings of self-consciousness, fear or reticence. Adults, in particular, perceive themselves as “intelligent, socially adept individuals” (Horwitz et at., 1991, p. 31). This self-concept might be challenged due to limited competence in L2. Addition- ally, unless people feel proficient and comfortable about communicating in a for- eign language and culture, they might experience anxiety, hesitancy or incertitude (Young, 1991). Thus, according to Woodrow (2006), inability to express oneself as well as not being able to understand when spoken to may lead to experience of language anxiety. Another factor, according to Price (1991), Young (1991) and Horwitz et al. (1991) that may play a role in language anxiety occurrence are learner beliefs. Price (1991) found that learners believe learning requires a special aptitude. Young (1991) indicated that learners sometimes have unrealistic beliefs such as time they need to learn a language or that they have to develop excellent accent and pronuncia- tion. Horwitz et at. (1991) added that some students believe that nothing should be said in foreign language unless it is said correctly. What is more, many adults tend to believe that they would never acquire language at a desired level due to their age and as a result they develop negative perception of their own intellectual competence (Onwuegbuzie et al. , 1997). It can be inferred that learner’s convictions about language learning may stem from student’s life history and past experiences related to school such as failures, low sense of academic efficacy and inability to meet the demands (Piechurska-Kuciel, 2008). Language anxiety, therefore, may emerge from classroom procedures and teacher’s attitude. Young (1991) found that some instructors believe they must be drill sergeants, and intimidate their students into learning. Fast-paced lessons, large amount of material covered and no time to process the input significantly increased anxiety (Von Worde 2003). The same author also reported that non-comprehension can be anxiety-provoking. Furthermore, error correction methods may trigger anxious feelings and result in fear of negative evaluation and thus fear to speak a foreign language. Young (1991) asserted that mistakes corrected by a teacher in an embarrassing way in front of the students may have debilitating effect on stu- dent self-esteem and motivation to continue learning the language. Similarly, Von Worde (2003) reported that learners became anxious when they were reprimanded for mistakes and corrected before they had an opportunity to finish answering a question. Turula (2002) stated that teachers often correct students in an explicit way, which carries the meaning of disapproval, mock and is accompanied by im- pression of insincerity. Therefore, learners who are corrected in that way may feel more anxious, less able than those who receive implicit correction, are given the chance of self-correction. According to Price (1991) teachers who discussed the importance of making mistakes in order to learn were considered as those helping mitigate the feeling of anxiety in learners. Adult learners have well-defined goals and expectations about learning. They join language courses because they want to grow professionally and personally. Current job market requirements in Poland force them to continue learning and gain many new skills, especially foreign languages. They also travel more often, thus effective communication seems indispensable. However, they bring prior history and experiences from the past to the class, and these were not always posi- tive memories. Sometimes, just the single fact that they must be back to school may undermine their self-esteem and self-concept as an adult. Therefore, language teachers should be aware that language anxiety is likely to emerge in this particular group of learners and have adverse consequences on learning, performance in EFL, motivation (Liu & Chen, 2015), just to name a few. When discussing the effects of language anxiety, it should be noted that the relationship between anxiety and performance can be seen from the perspective of relationship between stress and performance described by means of the Yerkes- Dodson law (cited in Piechurska-Kuciel, 2008). According to the Yerkes-Dodson law arousal caused by stress can either have a facilitating or debilitating impact on performance. The relation between arousal, herein anxiety, and performance is presented as a U-shaped function (see Fig. 1 below). As can be seen from Figure 1, a moderate anxiety level may enhance perfor- mance, whereas as anxiety level increases or decreases, the performance may dete- riorate. Alpert and Haber (1960) referred to this function of anxiety as facilitating or debilitation. Facilitating anxiety affects performance positively, in other words it improves performance, while debilitating anxiety hampers it, and thereby is as- sociated with poor achievements (Alpert and Haber, 1960). Scovel (1991, p. 22) pointed out that in educational settings “facilitating anxiety motivates individual to ‘fight’ the new learning task and gear indulgence behavior, whereas debilitating anxiety motivates individual to ‘flee’ the new learning task, and stimulate avoidance behavior. ”Various researchers found that a language anxiety can have a detrimental effect on language learning and performance (Horwitz et al. , 1991, Scovel, 1991, Price, 1991, MacIntyre and Gardner, 1994, MacIntyre, 1999, Von Worde, 2003, Ohata, 2005b). The effects have been classified as cognitive, physical, behavioral, academic, social and personal. As far as cognitive outcomes of language anxiety are concerned MacIntyre and Gardner (1994) identified negative effect of language anxiety on performance stages, i.e. input, processing, output. Anxious learners may fail to “take in” (encode) new material, store and assimilate it (organize) and retrieve it when needed. In other words, highly anxious people form a mental block and language acquisition may not progress, time needed to process of new material may significantly extend (MacIntyre and Gardner, 1994) and they can experience “freezing” while trying to communicate and thus not reflecting their knowledge (Horwitz et al. , 1991). Fur- thermore, anxious learners exhibit physical and behavioral responses as sweating, tapping foot, clammy hands, playing with objects, and sometimes develop avoidance behaviors such as not showing up for a class, finding excuses not to use the language, over-studying, just to name a few (Scovel, 1991; Von Worde, 2003; Ohata 2005b). Language anxiety has also been found to negatively correlate with academic achievements, such as language course grades (Horwitz et al. , 1991; MacIntyre, 1999) and has negative social and personal outcomes, e.g. losing dignity, being perceived as incompetent and silly (Price, 1991), less socially attractive, low self- confident and thereby climbing slower on a career ladder (Daly, 1991). In a view of recognized sources and effects of language anxiety, many strategies and programs have been developed in order to reduce negative effects of language anxiety on learning and performance. These embrace addressing language anxiety directly, developing language speaking skills, dispelling erroneous beliefs about language learning, accuracy (and errors) and /or age, and adopting classroom procedures which are not anxiety-triggering. According to Mejias et al. (1991) and Arnold (2005b) systematic desensitization, skill training and cognitive modification might help learners relax in the anxiety- provoking situation such as public speaking. As far as systematic desensitization is concerned, the learner is taught how to relax in the anxiety-provoking situations, and thus how to deal with the presence of the anxiety stimuli. It is done through visual imagery where an individual imagines oneself being in a safe and peaceful retreat, and self-verbalization (Arnold, 2005b). Mejias et al. (1991) and Arnold (2005b) posit that systematic desensitization is a situation-specific treatment that can be used to deal with stage fright, public speak- ing and anxiety experienced in a language context. Skills training can be considered crucial to improving students’ performance and alleviating anxiety. Mejias et al , (1991)) assert that students perform poorly in communication situations because they lack necessary skills, and therefore the method they suggest focuses solely on developing communicative repertoire of the speaker. And lastly, cognitive modification (restructuring) is suggested by Mejias et al. (1991) as an effective method to change learner’s cognitive appraisal and renounce erroneous beliefs. Learners hold certain negative beliefs regarding their aptitude, accuracy or age in relation to language learning and their change may be considered as one of strategies aiming at alleviating language anxiety (Horwitz et al. , 1991). Anxious learners are encouraged to recognize that their negative beliefs are irrational, and restructure them into positive perceptions, self-talk and interpret them in a realistic way ( Foss and Reitzel, 1991, Rice cited in Piechurska-Kuciel 2008). Following Oxford and Crookall’s (1991) strategy learners could familiarize with errors in a humorous way: “encourage students to take an amusing look at errors and to realize that they are not taboo and that they contribute to learning” (Crookall & Oxford, 1991, p. 147). Some scholars suggested changing classroom procedures and ...

Context 3

... emergence of language anxiety. Learners are concerned about lack of vocabulary and inability to retrieve appropriate words and expressions on the spot, especially when their performance was monitored (Ohata, 2005b). Accordingly, Horwitz et al. (1991, p. 31) assert that because “complex and non-spontaneous mental operations” are required to communicate in foreign language, thus any performance in the L2 is likely to challenge one’s self concept as an effective communicator and lead to nega- tive feelings of self-consciousness, fear or reticence. Adults, in particular, perceive themselves as “intelligent, socially adept individuals” (Horwitz et at., 1991, p. 31). This self-concept might be challenged due to limited competence in L2. Addition- ally, unless people feel proficient and comfortable about communicating in a for- eign language and culture, they might experience anxiety, hesitancy or incertitude (Young, 1991). Thus, according to Woodrow (2006), inability to express oneself as well as not being able to understand when spoken to may lead to experience of language anxiety. Another factor, according to Price (1991), Young (1991) and Horwitz et al. (1991) that may play a role in language anxiety occurrence are learner beliefs. Price (1991) found that learners believe learning requires a special aptitude. Young (1991) indicated that learners sometimes have unrealistic beliefs such as time they need to learn a language or that they have to develop excellent accent and pronuncia- tion. Horwitz et at. (1991) added that some students believe that nothing should be said in foreign language unless it is said correctly. What is more, many adults tend to believe that they would never acquire language at a desired level due to their age and as a result they develop negative perception of their own intellectual competence (Onwuegbuzie et al. , 1997). It can be inferred that learner’s convictions about language learning may stem from student’s life history and past experiences related to school such as failures, low sense of academic efficacy and inability to meet the demands (Piechurska-Kuciel, 2008). Language anxiety, therefore, may emerge from classroom procedures and teacher’s attitude. Young (1991) found that some instructors believe they must be drill sergeants, and intimidate their students into learning. Fast-paced lessons, large amount of material covered and no time to process the input significantly increased anxiety (Von Worde 2003). The same author also reported that non-comprehension can be anxiety-provoking. Furthermore, error correction methods may trigger anxious feelings and result in fear of negative evaluation and thus fear to speak a foreign language. Young (1991) asserted that mistakes corrected by a teacher in an embarrassing way in front of the students may have debilitating effect on stu- dent self-esteem and motivation to continue learning the language. Similarly, Von Worde (2003) reported that learners became anxious when they were reprimanded for mistakes and corrected before they had an opportunity to finish answering a question. Turula (2002) stated that teachers often correct students in an explicit way, which carries the meaning of disapproval, mock and is accompanied by im- pression of insincerity. Therefore, learners who are corrected in that way may feel more anxious, less able than those who receive implicit correction, are given the chance of self-correction. According to Price (1991) teachers who discussed the importance of making mistakes in order to learn were considered as those helping mitigate the feeling of anxiety in learners. Adult learners have well-defined goals and expectations about learning. They join language courses because they want to grow professionally and personally. Current job market requirements in Poland force them to continue learning and gain many new skills, especially foreign languages. They also travel more often, thus effective communication seems indispensable. However, they bring prior history and experiences from the past to the class, and these were not always posi- tive memories. Sometimes, just the single fact that they must be back to school may undermine their self-esteem and self-concept as an adult. Therefore, language teachers should be aware that language anxiety is likely to emerge in this particular group of learners and have adverse consequences on learning, performance in EFL, motivation (Liu & Chen, 2015), just to name a few. When discussing the effects of language anxiety, it should be noted that the relationship between anxiety and performance can be seen from the perspective of relationship between stress and performance described by means of the Yerkes- Dodson law (cited in Piechurska-Kuciel, 2008). According to the Yerkes-Dodson law arousal caused by stress can either have a facilitating or debilitating impact on performance. The relation between arousal, herein anxiety, and performance is presented as a U-shaped function (see Fig. 1 below). As can be seen from Figure 1, a moderate anxiety level may enhance perfor- mance, whereas as anxiety level increases or decreases, the performance may dete- riorate. Alpert and Haber (1960) referred to this function of anxiety as facilitating or debilitation. Facilitating anxiety affects performance positively, in other words it improves performance, while debilitating anxiety hampers it, and thereby is as- sociated with poor achievements (Alpert and Haber, 1960). Scovel (1991, p. 22) pointed out that in educational settings “facilitating anxiety motivates individual to ‘fight’ the new learning task and gear indulgence behavior, whereas debilitating anxiety motivates individual to ‘flee’ the new learning task, and stimulate avoidance behavior. ”Various researchers found that a language anxiety can have a detrimental effect on language learning and performance (Horwitz et al. , 1991, Scovel, 1991, Price, 1991, MacIntyre and Gardner, 1994, MacIntyre, 1999, Von Worde, 2003, Ohata, 2005b). The effects have been classified as cognitive, physical, behavioral, academic, social and personal. As far as cognitive outcomes of language anxiety are concerned MacIntyre and Gardner (1994) identified negative effect of language anxiety on performance stages, i.e. input, processing, output. Anxious learners may fail to “take in” (encode) new material, store and assimilate it (organize) and retrieve it when needed. In other words, highly anxious people form a mental block and language acquisition may not progress, time needed to process of new material may significantly extend (MacIntyre and Gardner, 1994) and they can experience “freezing” while trying to communicate and thus not reflecting their knowledge (Horwitz et al. , 1991). Fur- thermore, anxious learners exhibit physical and behavioral responses as sweating, tapping foot, clammy hands, playing with objects, and sometimes develop avoidance behaviors such as not showing up for a class, finding excuses not to use the language, over-studying, just to name a few (Scovel, 1991; Von Worde, 2003; Ohata 2005b). Language anxiety has also been found to negatively correlate with academic achievements, such as language course grades (Horwitz et al. , 1991; MacIntyre, 1999) and has negative social and personal outcomes, e.g. losing dignity, being perceived as incompetent and silly (Price, 1991), less socially attractive, low self- confident and thereby climbing slower on a career ladder (Daly, 1991). In a view of recognized sources and effects of language anxiety, many strategies and programs have been developed in order to reduce negative effects of language anxiety on learning and performance. These embrace addressing language anxiety directly, developing language speaking skills, dispelling erroneous beliefs about language learning, accuracy (and errors) and /or age, and adopting classroom procedures which are not anxiety-triggering. According to Mejias et al. (1991) and Arnold (2005b) systematic desensitization, skill training and cognitive modification might help learners relax in the anxiety- provoking situation such as public speaking. As far as systematic desensitization is concerned, the learner is taught how to relax in the anxiety-provoking situations, and thus how to deal with the presence of the anxiety stimuli. It is done through visual imagery where an individual imagines oneself being in a safe and peaceful retreat, and self-verbalization (Arnold, 2005b). Mejias et al. (1991) and Arnold (2005b) posit that systematic desensitization is a situation-specific treatment that can be used to deal with stage fright, public speak- ing and anxiety experienced in a language context. Skills training can be considered crucial to improving students’ performance and alleviating anxiety. Mejias et al , (1991)) assert that students perform poorly in communication situations because they lack necessary skills, and therefore the method they suggest focuses solely on developing communicative repertoire of the speaker. And lastly, cognitive modification (restructuring) is suggested by Mejias et al. (1991) as an effective method to change learner’s cognitive appraisal and renounce erroneous beliefs. Learners hold certain negative beliefs regarding their aptitude, accuracy or age in relation to language learning and their change may be considered as one of strategies aiming at alleviating language anxiety (Horwitz et al. , 1991). Anxious learners are encouraged to recognize that their negative beliefs are irrational, and restructure them into positive perceptions, self-talk and interpret them in a realistic way ( Foss and Reitzel, 1991, Rice cited in Piechurska-Kuciel 2008). Following Oxford and Crookall’s (1991) strategy learners could familiarize with errors in a humorous way: “encourage students to take an amusing look at errors and to realize that they are not taboo and that they contribute to learning” (Crookall & Oxford, 1991, p. 147). Some scholars suggested ...

Context 4

... is an important term, especially for chemists. An object is called chiral when it cannot be superimposed on its mirror image. They are different like our right and left hand (the term “chiral” originates from the Greek χειρ - hand). Many chemical can exist in two forms which are non-superimposable mutual mirror images - these isomers are called enantiomers (the traditional term “optical iso- mers” is also used). Most chiral molecules contain a stereogenic center, typically a carbon atom with 4 different substituents ( figure 1). It is worth mentioning that chirality should not be confused with asymmetry – a chiral molecule can exhibit a rotational symmetry! In the living world, many important biomolecules: sugars, nucleic acids, and proteins, contain chiral components (amino acids, monosaccharides) and are also chiral. This property is a key feature for their three-dimensional structure and thus for their metabolism and function. Various notation systems are used to describe enantiomers. Since the two en- antiomers rotate plane-polarized light in opposite directions, the sign of optical rotation (+ for dextrorotatory isomer and - for levorotatory one) can be given to distinguish them. Another system, traditionally used for sugars, amino acids and their derivatives, is based on the spatial arrangement of substituents of the particular stereogenic center and the compound can be assigned to the d or l series. Finally, Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority rules can be applied to assign „ R ” or „ S ” absolute configuration to each stereogenic center (figure 2). There is no straight correlation between notations, for example d isomer can be either dextro - or levorotatory! In nature, sugars from d series and l amino acids occur predominantly. Since we all are built of chiral molecules, the interaction of two enantiomers of a given compound on people, animals and plants can be different (Bentley, 2006, Smith, 2009). In particular, we can fill a different taste of the two forms. For example, ll-aspartam is sweet (and is used as an artificial sweetener) while its enantiomer, dd-aspartam, has a bitter taste (figure 3). Quite often two enantiomeric forms also smell differently (Bentley, 2006): levorotatory carvone has a spearmint scent while the second isomer smells as a caraway (other examples are shown on figure 4). More importantly, two optical isomers can differ in their biological activity, toxicity, the way they are digested and metabolized. These differences are important from the point of view of cosmetic and food industries, but, first of all, they are essential for the pharmaceutical industry (Smith, 2009). Many drugs are chiral, and very often only one of the enantiomeric forms has a therapeutic effect, with the other being inactive (like in case of DOPA, figure 5), but, much worse, it can even be toxic. Thalidomide (figure 6) was introduced to the European market half a century ago as an ideal drug for pregnant women, being used as a painkiller, a sedative, and against nausea. Later on, it was found that these women gave birth to deformed children. At that time, the drug was being marketed as an equimolar (50:50) mix- ture of enantiomers – called a racemic mixture – and only (+)-thalidomide has a positive therapeutic effect, while (-)-thalidomide is teratogenic. Interestingly, for several years thalidomide has been used again in the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, but patients are aware of its possible side effects (Eleutherakis- Papaiakovou et al ., ...