Table 1 - uploaded by Kerstin Tönsing
Content may be subject to copyright.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria based on each of the PICO components 

Inclusion and exclusion criteria based on each of the PICO components 

Source publication
Article
Full-text available
This paper presents a systematic research review regarding disability sensitivity training programmes provided to police officers. Thirteen databases between 1980 and 2015 were searched. After records were screened, 19 full-text studies were assessed. Three studies met the eligibility criteria. Quality appraisal was undertaken using the McMaster to...

Context in source publication

Context 1
... summary of the eligibility criteria is presented in Table 1. Studies were eligible for inclusion in this review if they met the following criteria: ...

Similar publications

Article
Full-text available
Research on female athletes has increased, with the main focus on Low Energy Availability (LEA) and Female Athlete Triad (TRIAD), however there is a gap in knowledge about LEA and related conditions such as eating disorder, menstrual dysfunction and bone health in athletes with disabilities. The literature suggests that those athletes, depending on...
Article
Full-text available
Research on female athletes has increased, with the main focus on Low Energy Availability (LEA) and Female Athlete Triad (TRIAD), however there is a gap in knowledge about LEA and related conditions such as eating disorder, menstrual dysfunction and bone health in athletes with disabilities. The literature suggests that those athletes, depending on...

Citations

... Os achados de uma revisão sistemática sobre a efetividade de programas de treinamento de policiais para lidar com pessoas com deficiência indicaram evidências limitadas da eficácia desses programas na melhoria dos conhecimentos e competências dos agentes policiais em relação a essas pessoas. Entretanto, os estudos relataram consistentemente melhorias estatisticamente significativas na atitude dos participantes após o treinamento e em comparação com os grupos de controle (Viljoen et al., 2017). Dada a magnitude desse efetivo, é essencial promover a formação contínua desses profissionais, para redução das violações de direitos humanos enfrentadas pelas pessoas com deficiência no acesso à justiça. ...
Book
O contingente de pessoas com deficiência no Brasil é estimado em 18,6 milhões, correspondendo a aproximadamente 8,9% da população com 2 anos ou mais de idade. Dados estatísticos indicam desigualdades significativas nas esferas da educação e do trabalho, além de disparidades regionais entre pessoas com e sem deficiência, com as primeiras apresentando os piores indicadores. O capacitismo, uma forma de discriminação direcionada às pessoas com deficiência, é tanto um causador quanto um catalisador dessas desigualdades. Este texto apresenta uma revisão de literatura sobre esse tema, discutindo como o capacitismo contribui para a geração e perpetuação dessas desigualdades.
... In the general review method and mental health category, police officers' mental health (n=3) is in the spotlight, forming a somewhat coherent line. While Violanti et al. 76 deal with police stressors and their impact on mental and physical well-being, Velazquez and Hernandez 77 study the reasons why police officers do not seek mental health treatment, and Marston et al. 78 focus on how gamification may help to deal with mental health issues. ...
Article
Full-text available
This scoping review aims to map how a review as a research method is used in Scopus-indexed police journals. Using the scoping review method and keywords ‘police’ and ‘policing’ in the Source section and Title field in Scopus databases, ten police journals covered up to 2022 were identified. After being assessed against the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 81 articles out of 471 were included in the analysis in MAXQDA, software for qualitative and mixed methods data analysis. Although two journals out of ten provided detailed descriptions for review articles, there are no strict restrictions from all the journals. General (n=32), systematic (n=27), scoping (n=11), narrative (n=9), integrative (n=1), and systematised (n=1) review methods were used in the following five categories: interdisciplinary/development (n=24), police strategies/practices (n=20), mental health (n=16), organisation (n=13), and police and community (n=8). This study is the first to map a review as a method used in police journals. However, police-related literature is far more extensive than studies covered in Scopus-indexed journals. For practitioners and policymakers, the study presents an overview and knowledge to formulate questions for academics; researchers get an overview of police journals’ expectations and actual practices; students gain the potential to increase their learning pace and enhance their knowledge of the method’s potential.StreszczenieNiniejszy przegląd ma na celu określenie, w jaki sposób recenzja jako metoda badawcza jest wykorzystywana w czasopismach policyjnych indeksowanych w bazie Scopus. Korzystając z metody przeglądu zakresowego i słów kluczowych "policja" i "policyjny" w sekcji Źródło i polu Tytuł w bazach danych Scopus, zidentyfikowano dziesięć czasopism policyjnych z okresu do 2022 roku. Po ocenie pod kątem kryteriów włączenia i wykluczenia, 81 artykułów z 471 zostało włączonych do analizy w MAXQDA, oprogramowaniu do analizy danych jakościowych i metod mieszanych. Chociaż dwa z dziesięciu czasopism dostarczyły szczegółowe opisy artykułów przeglądowych, nie ma ścisłych ograniczeń ze strony wszystkich czasopism. Ogólne (n=32), systematyczne (n=27), zakresowe (n=11), narracyjne (n=9), integracyjne (n=1) i usystematyzowane (n=1) metody przeglądu zostały wykorzystane w następujących pięciu kategoriach: interdyscyplinarne/rozwojowe (n=24), strategie/praktyki policyjne (n=20), zdrowie psychiczne (n=16), organizacja (n=13) oraz policja i społeczność (n=8). Niniejsze badanie jest pierwszym, które przedstawia przegląd jako metodę stosowaną w czasopismach policyjnych. Jednak literatura związana z policją jest znacznie obszerniejsza niż badania uwzględnione w czasopismach indeksowanych przez Scopus. Dla praktyków i decydentów badanie stanowi przegląd i wiedzę umożliwiającą formułowanie pytań dla naukowców; badacze uzyskują przegląd oczekiwań i rzeczywistych praktyk czasopism policyjnych; studenci zyskują możliwość zwiększenia tempa uczenia się i poszerzenia wiedzy na temat potencjału metody.ZusammenfassungDas Ziel der vorliegenden Untersuchung ist es, herauszufinden, wie die Rezension als Forschungsmethode in den in der Scopus-Datenbank indexierten Polizeizeitschriften eingesetzt wird. Mithilfe der Scoping-Review-Methode und den Schlüsselwörtern "policja" und "policing" im Quellenabschnitt und im Titelfeld der Scopus-Datenbanken wurden zehn Polizeizeitschriften ermittelt. Nach der Prüfung auf Ein- und Ausschlusskriterien wurden 81 von 471 Artikeln für die Analyse in MAXQDA ausgewählt, einer Software für qualitative Datenanalyse und gemischte Methoden. Obwohl zwei der zehn Zeitschriften detaillierte Beschreibungen der Übersichtsartikel liefern, gibt es nicht bei allen Zeitschriften strenge Einschränkungen. Es wurden allgemeine (n=32), systematische (n=27), Scoping- (n=11), narrative (n=9), integrative (n=1) und strukturierte (n=1) Überprüfungsmethoden in den folgenden fünf Kategorien angewandt: interdisziplinär/entwicklungsbezogen (n=24), polizeiliche Strategien/Praktiken (n=20), psychische Gesundheit (n=16), Organisation (n=13), Polizei und Gemeinwesen (n=8). Vorliegende Studie ist die erste, die die Überprüfung als eine der in Polizeizeitschriften verwendeten Methoden darstellt. Die polizeiliche Literatur ist jedoch viel umfangreicher als die in Scopus-indexierten Zeitschriften enthaltenen Studien. Für Praktiker und Entscheidungsträger ist die Studie ein Kompendium des Wissens zur Formulierung von Fragen an Forscher; die Forscher erhalten einen Überblick über die Erwartungen und die tatsächliche Praxis von Polizeizeitschriften; die Studenten erhalten die Möglichkeit, ihr Lernen zu beschleunigen und ihr Wissen über das Potenzial der Methode zu erweitern.РезюмеЦелью данного обзора является определение того, как рецензирование как метод исследования используется в полицейских журналах, индексируемых в базе данных Scopus. С помощью метода обзорного анализа и ключевых слов "policja" и "policing" в секции "Источник" и поле "Заголовок" базы данных Scopus были определены десять полицейских журналов. После оценки по критериям включения и исключения 81 статья из 471 была включена для анализа в MAXQDA (программное обеспечение для качественного анализа данных и смешанных методов). Хотя два из десяти журналов представили подробные описания обзорных статей, строгие ограничения не были установлены во всех журналах. Были использованы общие (n=32), систематические (n=27), обзорные (n=11), нарративные (n=9), интегративные (n=1) и структурированные (n=1) методы обзора в следующих пяти категориях: междисциплинарные/развивающие (n=24), стратегия/практика работы полиции (n=20), психическое здоровье (n=16), организация (n=13) и полиция и общество (n=8). В настоящем исследовании впервые представлен обзор как метод, используемый в полицейских журналах. Однако литература, связанная с полицейской деятельностью, намного больше, чем исследования, включенные в журналы, индексируемые в Scopus. Для практиков и лиц, принимающих решения, исследование дает возможность получить обзор и знания для формулирования вопросов для исследователей; исследователи получают обзор ожиданий и реальной практики полицейских журналов; студенты получают возможность ускорить свое обучение и расширить свои знания о потенциале метода.ResumenLa presente revisión tiene por objeto identificar cómo se utiliza la reseña, como método de investigación, en las revistas policiales indexadas en la base de datos Scopus. Utilizando el método de revisión por alcance y las palabras clave "policía" y "policing" en la sección Fuente y en el campo Título de las bases de datos Scopus, se identificaron diez revistas policiales. Tras evaluar los criterios de inclusión y exclusión, se incluyeron 81 artículos de un total de 471 para su análisis en MAXQDA, un programa informático de análisis de datos cualitativos y métodos mixtos. Si bien dos de las diez revistas proporcionaron descripciones detalladas de los artículos de revisión, no existen limitaciones rigurosas por parte de todas las revistas. Se utilizaron métodos de revisión generales (n=32), sistemáticos (n=27), de alcance (n=11), narrativos (n=9), integradores (n=1) y estructurados (n=1) en las cinco categorías siguientes: interdisciplinarios/de desarrollo (n=24), estrategias/prácticas policiales (n=20), salud mental (n=16), organización (n=13) y policía y comunidad (n=8). El presente estudio es el primero que aborda la revisión como método utilizado en las revistas policiales. No obstante, la bibliografía relativa a la policía es mucho más amplia que los estudios incluidos en las revistas indexadas en Scopus. Para los profesionales y los responsables de la toma de decisiones, el estudio proporciona una revisión y fuente de conocimiento para formular preguntas a los investigadores; los científicos obtienen un panorama de las expectativas y las prácticas reales de las revistas policiales; los estudiantes tienen la oportunidad de acelerar su aprendizaje y ampliar sus conocimientos sobre el potencial del método.
... Indeed, young adults in the criminal justice system often present with a myriad of neurological differences, including those related to experience of trauma (Kirby, 2021). In line with this recommendation, researchers have reported improved attitudes amongst criminal justice officers after completing specialist disability awareness courses (Viljoen et al., 2017). However, ensuring the content of these provides a comprehensive, yet engaging view of neurodivergence, which is regularly evaluated with focus groups of young adults and staff members and is critical to ensure practice is evidence-based. ...
Article
Full-text available
Recent research has highlighted that a high prevalence of young adults who have various forms of neurodivergence come into contact with the criminal justice system. Currently, many courts are not designed to respond to neurological differences often seen in young people who engage with them. The aim of this study was to identify ways to make locality courts more accessible, engaging, and ultimately more responsive to neurodivergence. A panel of neurodivergence specialists reviewed the general district courtroom environment of a new specialised young adult list court in Aotearoa New Zealand to identify potential barriers to accessibility and to highlight areas for improvement. The methodology involved naturalistic observation of a typical morning in the courtroom. We identified a series of recommendations with the potential to improve the court experience and increase access to justice for neurodivergent young adults. This study identified specific need for neurodiversity education and screening within the court environment.
... Likewise, the importance of adequate communication possibilities when interacting with others, particularly with the public [99][100][101][102][103][104], has been previously researched. Public interaction has been confirmed as causing stress among police officers [77,105] and it has been theorised that this stress could stem from the risk of threats and violence [103,104] and the use of force [106,107]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Patrolling police officers engage in different mentally, socially, and physically challenging life contexts which may affect their life and health. The aim of this scoping review is twofold, to explore life contexts of patrolling officers in the European Union, and to investigate how their lives and health are affected by environmental characteristics within these contexts. Methods The scoping review followed Arksey and O’Malley’s methodology and included a critical appraisal. The environmental model within Kielhofner’s Model of Human Occupation was used in the thematic analysis. The review was reported following PRISMA-ScR. Results In the 16 included studies, two contexts (where environments interact with persons on different levels) were discovered: the global and the immediate context. No local contexts were found. Primarily, research on the social, and occupational environments, including qualities identified in these environments were found. However, some environmental characteristics within patrolling officers’ physical environments were also discovered. Discussion This review contributes to the emerging research area of police officers’ life contexts, by mapping contexts and environments affecting their life and health. However, to get a deeper understanding of how officers are affected by their environments, interviewing them regarding how their different contexts affect their everyday living, would be important.
... Evidence has shown that training programs on disabilities can improve disability-related perceptions and attitudes (Viljoen et al., 2017). Disability sensitivity trainings help to bring understanding and awareness to attendees about different disabilities and how to respond to them. ...
... Disability sensitivity trainings help to bring understanding and awareness to attendees about different disabilities and how to respond to them. In a systematic review of disability sensitivity trainings, Viljoen et al. (2017) found that these trainings have various practical implications for use in first responder trainings. For instance, when trainings on disabilities are collaborative in nature, incorporate role-play, and provide opportunities to interact with individuals with disabilities, they are effective in improving participant attitudes. ...
... However, even without any specific training, participants also recognized the utility of simple tools, such as pen and paper, as a means of supporting communication. Furthermore, they described trainings that incorporated recommended elements such as role-plays and the use of communication supports (Railey et al., 2020;Viljoen et al., 2017). ...
Article
Full-text available
Purpose During a crisis, an individual with a communication disability or difference is at risk of communication breakdowns that could unintentionally escalate the crisis. The goal of this preliminary study was to identify how first responders from various organizations may respond given scenarios presenting potential interactions with an individual with a communication impairment or difference. Method Three adult participants currently serving as first responders completed semistructured interviews. Participants were asked how they would react in different hypothetical scenarios, all incorporating aspects of communication disorders and differences that could be misinterpreted. Data analysis consisted of transcribing the responses to each scenario and identifying the themes. Results Participants across organizations receive general communication and disability training, rely on established procedures, problem-solving, open-mindedness, and use of departmental resources in their interactions. Conclusions This preliminary study illustrates awareness of existing protocols and organizational supports that may support interactions with individuals with communication disorders and differences. Potential areas for additional resources and training include the use of augmentative and alternative communication and disability-specific education.
... There is limited evidence from the evaluation of training programmes internationally. A systematic review of 13 databases regarding disability sensitivity training programmes provided to police officers globally between 1980 and 2015 reported only three available studies in the field including two evaluating intellectual disability training (Viljoen et al. 2017). This review found 'limited evidence for the effectiveness of training programmes in improving knowledge and skills of police officers towards people with disabilities', highlighted the need for 'custom-designed training' and recommended that further research 'should be conducted to develop, implement and evaluate such programmes' (Viljoen et al. 2017). ...
... A systematic review of 13 databases regarding disability sensitivity training programmes provided to police officers globally between 1980 and 2015 reported only three available studies in the field including two evaluating intellectual disability training (Viljoen et al. 2017). This review found 'limited evidence for the effectiveness of training programmes in improving knowledge and skills of police officers towards people with disabilities', highlighted the need for 'custom-designed training' and recommended that further research 'should be conducted to develop, implement and evaluate such programmes' (Viljoen et al. 2017). The two studies included in the Viljoen review (2017) were conducted in Northern Ireland and involved role-play exercises in which police officers in the treatment group were allocated roles as people with intellectual or learning disabilities with observation by the remaining participants and subsequent discussion (Bailey et al. 2001;McAllister et al. 2002). ...
... This study sought to add to the extremely limited international research base regarding the evaluation of an intellectual disability awareness training programme for LEOs. Whilst multiple awareness programmes can be found to exist worldwide (e.g. in the US, UK and Canada), there is little evidence of formal evaluation (Viljoen et al. 2017). In parallel, there is a paucity of tools available to evaluate the effectiveness of training in respect of knowledge, and perceived practical application of knowledge from such training. ...
Article
Full-text available
Objectives Disability awareness training is mandated by the United Nations Convention on People with Disabilities (UNCRPD), but there is a paucity of evidence regarding the systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of such training. This study describes the evaluation of a pilot intellectual disability awareness programme for law enforcement officers (LEOs) in Ireland. Methods Pre-and post-training Likert scales and a semi-structured survey were used to evaluate the effectiveness of an intellectual disabilities awareness programme delivered to LEOs. Quantitative differences in Likert scores and thematic analyses of practice-based responses were used in evaluation. Results Twenty-two LEOs participated in the training and 11 completed the evaluation cycle. Statistically significant improvements were found in participants’ self-rated knowledge of intellectual disability, their understanding of the challenges faced by people with intellectual disabilities in law enforcement interactions, their communication skills and their knowledge of how to approach a person with a disability in crisis. Thematic analysis excavated potential practical application of learning around pre-arrest considerations, recognition of disability, communication skills and need for procedural safeguards. Conclusions An approach grounded in the views of people with intellectual disabilities and with emphasis on recognition of disability, communication, accessibility of information and providing appropriate support in custody, appears to promote improvement in self-reported knowledge and prospective application in LEOs. The findings of this study are potentially applicable to countries that have ratified the UNCRPD.
... As communities rely more heavily on police resources to address issues of mental illness, attention should be paid to attitudes police officers hold about mental illness and the impact of relevant training on these attitudes. As with other areas of training, such as procedural justice (Dai et al. 2020), de-escalation (Todak and White 2019), social identity awareness (Israel et al. 2017;Miles-Johnson 2016), physical ability and neurodiversity sensitivity (Viljoen et al. 2017), and sexual assault assistance and trauma-informed practice (Franklin et al. 2020;Parratt and Pina 2017;Sleath and Bull 2012), indirect, attitudinal measures comparing trained and non-trained officers, as well as retention of training effects on attitudinal changes provide scholars and practitioners with insight on the professional impact of training. The value of this insight lies not only in evaluation of specific training interventions, but also in addressing expectations community members hold that training transforms police attitudes, behavior, and policy. ...
... The value of this insight lies not only in evaluation of specific training interventions, but also in addressing expectations community members hold that training transforms police attitudes, behavior, and policy. Similar to other training foci (Viljoen et al. 2017), indirect assessments of CIT training's impact on officers' attitudes continue to compliment analysis of direct training outcomes (changes to observed behaviors, increased use of community partner resources, etc.). The current paper seeks to explore attitudes held by officers and whether previous with Crisis Intervention Team training is associated with a particular set of beliefs. ...
Article
Full-text available
The lack of robust mental health programs throughout the USA has resulted in police frequently being responsible for responding to calls about people with mental illness who are in crisis. Working with people with mental illness as offenders or as individuals needing emergency assistance is a regular part of the job for many in law enforcement, yet specialized training is not a regular part of most academy or in-service training curricula. Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) programs consist of a 40-h training for police and mental health personnel. The programs teach officers about mental illness, its causes and symptoms, and focuses on de-escalation tactics and use of available community resources as alternatives to criminal justice outcomes for calls. The current study explores officers’ feelings of preparedness to work with community members with mental illness and their levels of endorsement of mental health stigma. Researchers surveyed police from nine different local departments in southern New Jersey. Half of the surveyed officers completed CIT training, allowing for comparisons between officers who were trained and those who were not. Results indicate that the CIT-trained officers were more likely to endorse different types of mental health stigma than non-trained officers, but those who were CIT-trained reported feeling better prepared for calls involving people with mental illness.
... Callahan (2004) and Lavoie et al. (2007) also found negative attitudes towards inmates with mental illness among correctional officers. Research also shows that compared to the general population, people with mental disabilities are more likely to encounter the criminal justice system, especially police officers (Hughes et al., 2012;Viljoen et al., 2017). However, even with existing procedures and legislation, the outcomes of the interactions between the mentally ill and police officers have not always been positive. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
"Police officers are some of the first professionals that might have direct interaction with individuals with mental illnesses. Statistics show that from 2017 to 2020 about 3986 individuals in the United States were fatally shot by police officers (Statista, 2021). These reports indicate that at least 25% and as many as 50% of all fatal shootings involved individuals with untreated severe mental illness. The purpose of this pilot study was to test the effectiveness of a five-day psycho-educational mental health awareness training in enhancing law enforcement officers’ knowledge about mental illness, and their perceptions towards mentally ill individuals using a pretest-posttest design. The Community Attitudes Towards the Mentally Ill (CAMI) scale was used to measure participants’four mental health attitudinal domains - authoritarianism, benevolence, social restrictiveness, and community mental health ideology. The results indicate that at the completion of the training there was an increase in participants’ confidence about their knowledge of the mentally ill individuals and mental illness conditions. However, the results also indicate a slight decrease in participants' mental illness social restrictiveness sentiment after the completion of the training. Additionally, the results also show a correlation between demographic variables and some of the domains. Implications for practice are discussed."
... Irrespective of whether police officers have contact with persons with disabilities as victims, witnesses, or perpetrators, they need to understand and recognize the features of disability, and be equipped with skills to handle all potential challenges that may arise (Daruwalla and Darcy, 2005;Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission, 2014). Police training programmes on disability-related issues have shown to effectively improve the attitudes of police officers towards persons with disabilities (Bailey et al., 2001;McAllister et al., 2002; see also Viljoen et al. (2017) for a review) and also the knowledge they have about specific disabilities (Engelman et al., 2013). In the current study, one of the first conducted on this topic in the Majority World, the authors aimed to explore South African police officers' knowledge of disabilities, and their experience and perceptions of competence in providing police services to persons with disabilities, as a first step to address possible training needs in this regard. ...
... A realization that police services offered to persons with disabilities were not adequate prompted the SAPS to commission inputs and comments on the draft strategy for the provision of police service to persons with disabilities in 2015. This led to a systematic review on disability sensitivity training programmes offered internationally by law enforcement agencies (Viljoen et al., 2017), which revealed that there were few primary research studies reporting and evaluating disability sensitivity interventions for police officers. In fact, the search identified only three studies that were published within the last 15 years (2001, 2002, and 2013) with a focus on only three disability types namely intellectual, learning, and hearing. ...
... Studies that report on prevalence figures of how frequently police officers come into contact with persons with disabilities are crucial. Moreover, research that serves to address specific training guidelines for disability training should be presented and incorporated into the initial training of new recruits but also as ongoing professional development of in-service police officers where the focus of such a study can provide critical information on how to respond to crimes involving persons with disabilities (Viljoen et al., 2017). ...
Article
Police officers increasingly come into contact with persons with various disabilities in their line of duty. This study aimed to determine police officers’ knowledge, experience, and perceived competence in interacting with persons with disabilities by using questionnaires (n = 98). Participants spanned different genders, age groups, educational levels, ranks, and years of experience. Results showed fair knowledge of the different disability types, despite no prior training. This was attributed to 52% of participants with a family member with a disability and 39% who had previously come into contact with various disability types in their line of duty. Knowledge was poor in identifying specific characteristics of various disabilities. Regarding experience, police officers reported that they most frequently encountered persons with physical disabilities. Perceived competence in interacting with persons with disabilities in the course of policing varied from high to low. A need for training related to disabilities was expressed by 94% of participants.
... The mainstreaming of this programme, which involved joint working between police and mental health service providers and specialist training for police officers was found to precipitate small but measurable reductions in the use of force by the police. Benefits have been found in studies examining attitudes and confidence levels among LEOs undertaking specialist disability awareness modules (Bailey, Barr, & Bunting, 2001;Gendle & Woodhams, 2005;Murphy, Kelleher, & Gulati, 2018;Viljoen, Bornman, Wiles, & Tönsing, 2017). ...
Article
Full-text available
There is a high prevalence of people with intellectual disability (ID) among those in police custody. Consequently, law enforcement officers (LEOs) at the frontline of the criminal justice system are commonly required to interact with people who have ID. Notwithstanding the frequency of these interactions, research indicates that police exchanges with persons with ID frequently take place against a backdrop of tenuously-resourced disability awareness training. At the time of writing, a paucity of research data exists with respect to the experiences of LEOs operating within this training vacuum at an international level. A better understanding of their experiences could meaningfully inform research, training and improve support programmes for LEO's. We systematically reviewed six databases to identify studies published up to 1st December 2019 reporting the experience of LEOs interfacing with suspects who have an ID. Following a review of 670 abstracts, 16 studies were identified from five countries involving 983 LEOs. LEOs identified 1) a need for specialised training; 2) challenges in identifying people with ID; 3) a need to improve safeguards and 4) challenges in supporting/communicating with individuals who have ID through the investigation process.