Figure 5 - uploaded by Daniel Johnson
Content may be subject to copyright.
Illustrations showing the preferred Power Grip versus the Pinch Grip espoused by the building industry. (Illustrations adapted from Pauls, 2009).
Source publication
Steep stairs, caused by risers that are too great and or by goings (runs) that are too small, contribute to an increased risk of missteps, falls and injuries. Traditionally, building codes have allowed such conditions in homes and this appears to be a major factor in relatively high injury occurrences related to home stairs. Risk of missteps and fa...
Context in source publication
Citations
... The mid stair action is more likely driven by this information than vision [17] though this can present an issue when discrete inconsistencies in step dimensions are present mid stair as they go visually unnoticed and lead to reduced foot clearance [18]. Previous ergonomic reports note this as a stair safety hazard, [9,19], though to our knowledge, only one recent study has evidenced this experimentally. Francksen, Ackermans [18] showed that during stair ascent, foot clearances reduced by~0.9cm in young and older adults over a mid-stair riser that was inconsistently taller by 1cm compared to when all risers were consistent in height. ...
IntroductionStair falls can be caused by inconsistent stair dimensions. During ascent, inconsistently taller stair risers lead to reduced foot clearances as the inconsistency goes unnoticed. A stair horizontal-vertical illusion increases perceived riser heights and foot clearance and could offset reduced foot clearances over inconsistently taller risers, though this might impact other stair safety measures.Method
Twelve participants (age: 22 (3) years) ascended a seven-step staircase under three conditions: i) all steps consistent in riser height (consistent), ii) a 1cm increase in step 5 riser height (inconsistent) and iii) a 1cm increase in step 5 riser height, superimposed with a stair horizontal-vertical illusion (illusion). Vertical foot clearance, foot overhang, and margins of stability were assessed over step 4, 5 and 6. Perceived riser height due to the illusion was determined through a computer perception test. A One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA compared biomechanical variables between conditions. A One Sample t test compared perceived riser height to the true height.ResultsOver the inconsistent step 5, foot clearance reduced by 0.8cm compared to consistent. Illusion increased foot clearance by 1.1cm and decreased foot overhang by 4% compared to inconsistent. On step 4 the illusion led to more anterior instability compared to inconsistent. Illusion and inconsistent led to more mediolateral stability compared to consistent. The illusion increased perceived riser height by 12%.DiscussionFoot clearance reductions over inconsistently taller risers can be offset by a stair horizontal-vertical illusion. Additional benefits included a safer foot overhang and unaffected stability over the inconsistent riser. Changes to step 4 stability might have resulted from leaning forward to look at the step 5 illusion. The stair horizontal-vertical illusion could be a practical solution for inconsistently taller stair risers, where a rebuild is usually the only solution.
... Building users are the stakeholder group most impacted, as they also bear the societal cost of injury (Johnson & Pauls, 2010) that is at least an order of magnitude greater than the direct cost of injuries recorded by the Accident Compensation Corporation (Keall et al., 2016 ...
... However, a risk to people within homes exists, as shown by statistics from the Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC, 2021). Furthermore, the ergonomics literature demonstrates that short flights of steps and stairs cause the most accidents within homes (Callon, 2021) [ Figure 1] and that the top-most treads pose the highest hazard (Johnson & Pauls, 2010;Cohen et al., 2009;Francksen, 2021). ...
... The losses were directly translated into a benefit to regulated parties. However, losses did not cover injury, let alone negative social impacts that amplify such figures ten-fold (Johnson & Pauls, 2010). An argument can be made that an exempt structure that occurs within a building project, such as an attached deck with steps, will not incur any additional consent fees if it were inspected as a part of a normal inspections regime. ...
... Therefore, if the geometry of the staircase were to suddenly change-either as a result of staircase design, damage or an obstruction, this could lead to fall and injury [74]. Supporting this, it has been reported that stairs with inconsistencies in their heights have resulted in greater incidences of falling compared to stairs that were consistent [139]. ...
Movement on stairs is a crucial factor that influences people’s ability to evacuate from buildings in fire emergencies. In fact, the accessibility of stairs during multilevel evacuations is considered to be a criterion for the tenability of a building. Biomechanical analyses of pedestrian staircase descent add nuance by characterizing factors relevant to safe movement on stairs, such as foot placement, use of handrails, and balance. While these factors are not traditionally captured by evacuation analyses and models, their inclusion can point to areas of particular risk during evacuation from physiological, environmental, design, and engineering standpoints. This systematic review presents relevant biomechanical aspects, with a particular focus on factors that influence downward movement on stairs for evacuation purposes. The review begins with findings on walking speeds, gait analysis (e.g., cadence and foot clearance), as well as changing demographics are summarized. Then, research on balance control (vision, proprioception, and limb coordination) is presented, followed by findings on fatigue and grasping. Implications of the empirical findings are then considered for evacuation modelling, safer and more efficient evacuation procedures, as well as building design. Finally, limitations of the review itself and future research needs are explored.
... While the majority of falls and stair-related incidents are found to occur in home settings (Pauls, 2013;Johnson, 2010), accidents and fall risk are equally problematic in public buildings (e.g. workplace, educational institutions, retail and leisure environments) where they represent a major source of injury (Cohen et al., 2009;Templer, 1992). ...
... The literature shows that accidents and incidents on stairs are inextricably linked with the dimensional accuracy and consistency of risers and treads. High risers cause missteps (Vesela, 2019;Johnson and Pauls, 2010). Wright and Roys (2005) found that higher risers resulted in the shoes being placed further forward on the treads regardless of going lengths. ...
... The study concluded that the foot pivoting and/or slipping off a nosing could be attributed to risers that are too high, or goings that are too short. Slips due to overstepping treads in descent have been found to be the most frequent type of stairway falls (Johnson and Pauls, 2010). Wright and Roys (2008) also found that the relative risk of falls increased with reduction in going dimension. ...
Purpose - Compliance with standard specifications in stairway design and construction, particularly the step geometry, is imperative for the safety and usability of stairs. The purpose of this study, was to assess the compliance of stair step geometry parameters with standard specifications in selected public buildings in Ghana. Specifically, the study investigated the prevalence of deviations in step geometry parameters from standard provisions; how significant these deviations are in comparison, and by theoretical association, the potential risk of accidents.
Design/methodology/approach - Field measurement of the geometric parameters of a total of 1954 steps in 204 flights of stairs within 28 university buildings was undertaken using a calibrated Multi Digit Pro þ digital spirit level and a tape measure following the Nose-to-Nose Method. The results were analyzed using in Microsoft Excel 2016 and Minitab 18 and interpreted based on mean values, one-sample t-test and percentages.
Findings - Although some parameters generally complied with standard specifications, dimensional inconsistencies in risers and treads of adjacent steps were most prevalent, and significantly at margins far above standard specifications. The findings of the study show the unique limitation of the step geometry design requirements specified in the current Ghana National Building Code and the National Building Regulation, and by association, the potential risk of accidents and discomfort in the use of stairs in public buildings such as those on university campuses.
Practical implications - The observed deviations in the dimensions of risers and treads point to a lack of strict compliance with standard specifications in the design and construction of stairs. Apart from engaging skilled artisans, and intensifying supervision in stair construction, development control authorities in Ghana need to strengthen inspection of stairs during construction to ensure and enforce compliance.
Originality/value - Findings of the study provide insight into stairway design, as well as stair safety and usability in a developing world context, and allows for a more comprehensive study of stair-related accidents and discomfort associated with stairs in public buildings as a basis for the review of standards and codes in Ghana and other developing countries.
... However, regulations only govern newly built stairs, and inconsistencies greater than those now permitted exist on older stairs (Cohen et al., 2009;Wright and Roys, 2008). These inconsistencies in step dimensions have been linked to an increased fall risk (BSI, 2010;Johnson and Pauls, 2010;Roys and Wright, 2005;Roys, 2001). ...
... In fact, an investigation of 80 stair falls found that 60% of the stairs involved had an inconsistency in the rise, which was larger than the permitted limit of 9.5 mm (Cohen et al., 2009). In ascent, an inconsistently greater rise has been observed to increase the occurrence of toe-catches and trips (Johnson and Pauls, 2010;Templer, 1992). However, mechanisms of falls due to an inconsistent rise in descent have not been studied, although they are hypothesised to reduce foot contact length, increasing the risk of a slip (Roys and Wright, 2005). ...
Stairs are associated with falls, especially when step dimensions are inconsistent. However, the mechanisms by which inconsistencies cause this higher risk are mostly theoretical. In this experimental study we quantified the effect of inconsistent rise heights on biomechanical measurements of stepping safety from younger (n = 26) and older adults (n = 33). In ascent, both groups decreased foot clearance (~9 mm) over the inconsistently higher step (F(1,56) = 48.4, p < 0.001). In descent, they reduced foot contact length on the higher step by 3% (F(1,56) = 9.1, p < 0.01). Reduced clearance may result in a toe-catch potentially leading to a trip, while reduced foot contact lengths increase the risk of overstepping which may also lead to a fall. These effects occurred because participants did not alter their foot trajectories, indicating they either did not detect or were not able to adjust to the inconsistent rise, increasing the likelihood of a fall. Consistent stair construction is vital, and existing inconsistencies should be identified and safety interventions developed.
... improving lighting, and avoiding hard surface playgrounds (22,23). Other recommended preventive measures include increasing use of home safety devices, such as stair gates and guard rails, installing and using stairway handrails that are easily grasped and have no sharp edges, and avoiding use of prefabricated stairs that often create a tripping hazard when the builder raises or lowers the top-step riser to adjust the prefabricated stairway height to match the actual height rise between floors (24)(25)(26)(27). Caregiver education and home safety visits are also critical to the prevention of TBIs in younger children. ...
Background: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is prevalent in children and adolescents ages <1–19 years, yet we have limited understanding of consumer products that are associated with TBIs in children and adolescents of varying ages. To address this gap, we combined two data sources to investigate leading products and activities associated with TBIs in children and adolescents in different developmental age groups (i.e. <1, 1–4, 5–9, 10–14, and 15–19 years).
Methods: We analysed data from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System–All Injury Program (NEISS-AIP), augmented with product information from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS), for the years 2010 through 2013.
Results: From 2010 to 2013, children and adolescents aged <1–19 years accounted for 4.1 million non-fatal TBI-related emergency department visits. TBIs from home furnishings and fixtures, primarily beds, were highest among infants aged <1 year and children aged 1–4 years. TBIs from sports/recreation, especially bicycles and football, were highest among those aged 5–9 years, 10–14 years, and 15–19 years.
Conclusions: The combined NEISS and NEISS-AIP data allow us to comprehensively examine products and activities that contribute to emergency department visits for TBIs in children and adolescents. Our findings indicate priority areas for TBI prevention and intervention.
... Hensbroek et al. [28] used an injury surveillance database to determine the height of the participants' stair falls by recording the number of steps they fell from, but the specific structural hazards involved (e.g., top-of-flight fault [31]) were not reported. Lim and Sung [24] identified two significant risk factors associated with falls (presence of a door sill and poor night light), although it was not clear whether these were hazards in the bathroom. ...
Stair and bathroom falls contribute to injuries among older adults. This review examined which features of stairs and bathrooms have been assessed in epidemiological, ergonomic, and national aging studies on falls or their risk factors. Epidemiological and ergonomic studies were eligible if published from 2006–2017, written in English, included older persons, and reported built environment measures. The data extracted included the following: study population and design, outcome measures, and stair and bathroom features. National aging studies were eligible if English questionnaires were available, and if data were collected within the last 10 years. Sample characteristics; data collection methods; and data about falls, the environment, and assistive device use were extracted. There were 114 eligible articles assessed—38 epidemiologic and 76 ergonomic. Among epidemiological studies, 2 assessed stair falls only, 4 assessed bathroom falls only, and 32 assessed falls in both locations. Among ergonomic studies, 67 simulated stairs and 9 simulated bathrooms. Specific environmental features were described in 14 (36.8%) epidemiological studies and 73 (96%) ergonomic studies. Thirteen national aging studies were identified—four had stair data and six had bathroom data. Most epidemiologic and national aging studies did not include specific measures of stairs or bathrooms; the built environment descriptions in ergonomic studies were more detailed. More consistent and detailed environmental measures in epidemiologic and national aging studies would better inform fall prevention approaches targeting the built environment.
... 7,12 Falls in older children may be reduced by avoiding use of prefabricated stairs in new construction, which often have the top step with a different going/rise ratio than the lower steps. 13,14 Building codes for new construction have been changing to require safer stairway tread-to-riser ratios, smooth and graspable handrails, and closely spaced side-rails, but retrofitting handrails in existing construction merits evaluation. 15 Children less than 5 years often fall by rolling off surfaces they are placed on, or by being dropped. ...
Consumer products are often associated with fall injuries, but there is limited research on nonfatal unintentional falls in children that examines both the child’s age group and the involvement of consumer products and activities. We combined 2 data sources to investigate products and activities that contribute to fall injuries in children at different developmental ages (ie, <1, 1-2, 3-4, 5-9, 10-14, and 15-19 years). We analyzed data from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System–All Injury Program for the years 2010 through 2013 and augmented it with product information from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System. Between 2010 and 2013, children aged <1 to 19 years accounted for 11.1 million nonfatal unintentional fall-related emergency department visits. Fall injuries associated with home furnishings/fixtures were highest among children in age groups <1 year, 1 to 2 years, and 3 to 4 years. In the home furnishings/fixtures product group, beds were the leading contributor to falls. Fall injuries associated with sports/recreation were highest among children in age groups 5 to 9 years, 10 to 14 years, and 15 to 19 years. In this product group, monkey bars and basketball were the leading contributors to falls. Our findings indicate priority areas for falls injury prevention and intervention.
... While stairs have been declared one of the most dangerous consumer projects (Johnson 1998), falls on stairs generally occur due to a number of design and construction defects, principally inconsistent step geometry (Johnson and Pauls, 2010). The latent dangers of inconsistent step geometry have often seemed to go unnoticed or unappreciated by designers, builders and inspectors. ...
While Eyre et al. (2016 Eyre, M., Foster, P.J., Hallas, K., and Shaw, R., 2016. The use of laser scanning as a method for measuring stairways following an accident. Survey Review, 48 (347), 121–129. doi:10.1179/1752270615Y.0000000014) have contributed some useful and interesting discussion with respect to the use of laser scanning as a method for measuring the consistency of stairway dimensions; they reach a different conclusion to Bowman et al. (2015 Bowman, R., Roys, M., and Davies, N., 2015. Use of 3D laser scanning stairway geometry data to better understand the risk of falls and enable improved stair regulations’. Proceedings of the 19th International Ergonomics Association Triennial Congress, Melbourne, 9–14 August 2015. http://ergonomics.uq.edu.au/iea/proceedings/Index_files/papers/1085.pdf.). Eyre et al. concluded that ‘Owing to the errors associated with laser scanners, for precise high accuracy surveys to narrow tolerances such as the measurements of rise and goings outlined in this paper, laser scanning may not be the best survey methodology available’; and that ‘the classification of the error from laser scanning must be established, in order to consider if the error is relative and therefore can be mitigated, through further research’. Although Eyre et al. were planning ‘to explore the use of different laser scanning systems that may be better suited to the task of stair measurement’, we contend that they should have identified an appropriately accurate system prior to conducting their study and reaching an adverse conclusion.
Determining the accuracy of laser scanning results is far more complex than that of simple linear measurements (Boehler and Marbs 2003 Boehler, W. and Marbs, A., 2003. Investigating laser scanner accuracy. The International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 34 (Part 5), 696–701. http://dev.cyark.org/temp/i3mainzresults300305.pdf.), being a function of several characteristics that extend beyond the scanner itself, where the accuracy specifications published by laser scanner producers are not comparable, and should sometimes not be trusted.
The Leica C10 laser scanner, which Eyre et al. used in case study 2, is marketed as an all-in-one laser scanner for any application representing the most capabilities and best value packed into a single instrument. It has a stated single point accuracy of ± 6 mm in 3D space, although it is capable of more robust returns and cleaner data on dark surfaces. The Leica HDS6000 laser scanner, used in case study 1, has a stated single point accuracy of ±4–6 mm in 3D space, depending on surface reflectivity and range. We consider the Eyre et al. laser scanning results probably contain at least ±3 mm scanner data noise. We believe engineering metrology laser scanners are required for ±1 mm accuracy. Furthermore, we suggest that the Eyre et al. data analysis approach was based on the standard manufacturer field survey procedure, not what was needed for accurate measurements of the stair dimensions.
... Step geometry should be uniform in shape and dimension and facilitate gait (Novak et al., 2016;Pauls & Barkow, 2013;Johnson & Pauls, 2010;Jackson & Cohen, 1995); handrails should be both reachable and graspable (Maki, 2011;Dusenberry et al., 2009), and stairway components, i.e., steps, handrails, landing and headroom, should be clearly visible and perceivable to users (Archea et al., 1979;Sloan, 2011). These basic features are even more important for people in need of additional stair climbing support, i.e., people with physical, sensory, or cognitive limitations. ...
... Research shows there are more falls on stairways as steps depart from a "best practice" standard of a 7 inch riser (180 mm) and 11 inch tread (280 mm) (Templer, 1992). In particular, Johnson and Pauls (2010) demonstrated that stairways with high risers cause more falls. Ascending users require a higher leg lift and more strength to raise their body up and forward, and descending users shift their weight forward and downward for longer distances while balancing on one tread in each footfall (Templer, 1992). ...
... A continuous run of rectangular treads that are equal in shape and size can help reduce the risk of falls by allowing stair users to have a more consistent and natural gait as opposed to treads with varying sizes and shapes that force alterations of gait while climbing the stairway. It is well known that dimensional irregularity of steps is a leading cause of stairway falls (Jackson & Cohen, 1995;Cohen et al., 2009;Johnson & Pauls, 2010). To help counter this problem, the building code requires uniform risers and treads where the largest riser/tread minus the smallest riser/tread in a flight of stairs cannot exceed 3/8 inches (9 mm) (ICC, 2011). ...
This paper discusses an evaluation of stairway designs featured in Architectural Record, a leading architectural professional journal, over a thirteen-year publication period (2000 to 2012). Images of stairways were classified as either hazard-free or hazard(s)-present using a hazard identification checklist, and the frequency of visible design hazards was tabulated. A total of 578 stairways were scanned in articles and advertisements, of which 78 (13.5%) were product advertisements. Sixty-one percent of the stairways had at least one visible design hazard including nearly half (47%) in product advertisements. The three most common hazards in stairways were inadequate handrails (161, 27.8%), excessive length of stairway flights (74, 12.8%), and low visual contrast on tread edges (73, 12.6%). The high prevalence of stairway design hazards in the professional literature indicates a need for improved professional education and media attention to safe stairway design. © 2016 Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research.
