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![Figure 1: Equivalence ratio vs. flame velocity of different fuels [18]](profile/Ir-Ts-Dr-Mohd-Faizal-Fauzan/publication/332413579/figure/fig1/AS:747828339015680@1555307578122/Equivalence-ratio-vs-flame-velocity-of-different-fuels-18_Q320.jpg)
![Figure 3: Fuel Carburetion Method [48]](profile/Ir-Ts-Dr-Mohd-Faizal-Fauzan/publication/332413579/figure/fig3/AS:747828339027970@1555307578176/Fuel-Carburetion-Method-48_Q320.jpg)
![Figure 4: Inlet Port Injection Method [51]](profile/Ir-Ts-Dr-Mohd-Faizal-Fauzan/publication/332413579/figure/fig4/AS:747828339036161@1555307578246/nlet-Port-Injection-Method-51_Q320.jpg)
![Figure 5: Direct Injection Method [51]](profile/Ir-Ts-Dr-Mohd-Faizal-Fauzan/publication/332413579/figure/fig5/AS:747828339044352@1555307578324/Direct-Injection-Method-51_Q320.jpg)
In the world that we live in today, non-renewable sources of energy are being depleted at an exponential rate. Thus, alternative sources of fuel have become more important to prevent the occurrence of an energy crisis. Seeing that hydrogen is not a source of energy but rather, a carrier of energy, it is very useful as a compact source of energy to...
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... As a result, the energy content of this mixture is lower compared to diesel fuel. This is due to the fact that diesel fuel, being a liquid, occupies a minimum volume in the combustion chamber, allowing more air to enter and thus increasing the energy content [36][37][38]. ...
This article presents the possibility of improving combustion using the effect of releasing hydrogen from a solution with nucleation of gas bubbles. This concept consists in dissolving hydrogen in diesel fuel until the equilibrium state of the solution is reached. At a later stage, the phenomenon is reversed, and this gas is released from the solution during its injection into the combustion chamber with a strong swirl. A characteristic feature of the solution is that when lowering the pressure (opening the atomizers), there is a decrease in the equilibrium thermodynamic potential, which results in the excess, dissolved hydrogen being released spontaneously, and this process is of a volumetric nature. This article is a continuation of the work carried out at Poznan University of Technology on the development of this concept. This article presents the results of tests for the impact of hydrogen dissolved in diesel fuel on the combustion process within a turbulent-flow environment. The tests were conducted in the combustion chamber of an engine equipped with a toroidal combustion chamber and direct injection. During the tests, the following factors were measured: the main indicators of motor operation, emission of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matters.
... The key benefits of hydrogen-fueled ICES are enhanced tolerance to contamination, reduced resource usage, the simplicity of converting ICES to operate on hydrogen [12,13,[17][18][19], and especially total cost of ownership [20]. Research on hydrogen-fueled ICEs has been ongoing since the previous century [21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38]. Hydrogen-fueled ICE has the potential to have higher output power above a specific speed threshold [39]. ...
... Hydrogen-fueled ICE has the potential to have higher output power above a specific speed threshold [39]. As there is a need for fast replacement of fossil fuels, ICEs fueled by hydrogen have the potential to enter the market quickly, enabling practical deployment with minimal delay, especially if the use of diesel cars is gradually decreased in the upcoming years [36,37,[40][41][42][43]. Exhaust emissions for a SI engine fueled with gasoline and industrial by-product hydrogen (IPH) were compared and the NOx emissions of the SI engine fueled with IPH were slightly increased, however, CO and HC emissions were reduced by more than 90% [44]. ...
High fluctuations in the combustion process from one cycle to another, referred to as cycle-by-cycle variations, can have adverse effects on internal combustion engine performances, particularly in spark ignition (SI) engines. These effects encompass incomplete combustion, the potential for misfires, and adverse impacts on fuel economy. Furthermore, the cycle-by-cycle variations can also affect a vehicle's drivability and overall comfort, especially when operating under lean-burn conditions. Although many cycle-by-cycle analyses have been investigated extensively in the past, there is limited in-depth knowledge available regarding the causes of cycle-by-cycle (CbC) variations in hydrogen lean-burn SI engines. Trying to contribute to this topic, the current study presents a comprehensive analysis of the CbC variations based on the cylinder pressure data. The study was carried out employing a hydrogen single-cylinder research SI engine. The experiments were performed by varying more than fifty operating conditions including the variations in lambda, spark advance, boost pressure, and exhaust gas recirculation, however, the load and speed were kept constant throughout the experimental campaign. The results indicate that pressure exhibits significant variations during the combustion process and minor variations during non-combustion processes. In the period from the inlet valve close till the start of combustion, pressure exhibits the least variations. The coefficient of variation of pressure (COV P) curve depicts three important points in H2-ICE as well: global minima, global maxima, and second local minima. The magnitude of the COV P curve changes across all the operating conditions, however, the shape of the COV P curve remains unchanged across all the operating conditions, indicating its independence from the operating condition in an H2-ICE. This study presents an alternative approach for a quick combustion analysis of hydrogen engines. Without the need for more complex methodologies like heat release rate analysis, the presented cylinder pressure cycle-by-cycle analysis enables a quick and precise identification of primary combustion features (start of combustion, center of combustion, end of combustion, and operation condition stability). Additionally, the engine control unit could implement these procedures to automatically adjust cycle-by-cycle variations, therefore increasing engine efficiency.
... Of course, when you use fossil hydrocarbons, CO 2 is created while reforming. It needs to be captured and stored to keep it from entering the atmosphere [Stępień 2021, Dimitriou, Tsujimura 2017, Faizal et al. 2019]. ...
... Hydrogen has the advantage over FC technology of greater tolerance to pollution, more mature ICE technology, lower consumption of rare materials, and ease of adaptation of ICEs to run on hydrogen [Al-baghdadi et al. 2020]. Since the last century, H2ICEs have been a research subject [Boretti et al. 2019, Dimitriou, Tsujimura 2017, Faizal et al. 2019. A comparison of the torque and power output of the ICE with the electric motor as the power source in battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) is illustrated in Figure 1 [Stępień 2021]. ...
Hydrogen is expected to be one of the most important fuels meeting stringent emission standards shortly. Using hydrogen as a fuel in an internal combustion engine (ICE) is an alternative application to replace hydrocarbon fuels that, when burned, produce harmful gases such as carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, particulate matter, and greenhouse gases. This work provides an overview of the latest research results and future challenges and opportunities related to the use of hydrogen to power ICEs. The article presents the work of various research centres describing the technical use of hydrogen as a fuel in motor vehicles with combustion engines. Specific chemical and physical properties of hydrogen used in combustion engines were presented. The article presents modern research on a hydrogen-powered ICE. First, the basics of hydrogen engines are described, examining the engine-specific properties of hydrogen, followed by a review of the existing literature. Attention was paid to the fundamental importance of optimising the air composition from the point of view of combustion quality, NOx emissions, engine efficiency, and performance. Another issue under consideration is cleaning exhaust gases to meet future emissions regulations for hydrogen-fuelled combustion engines.
... Before we continue, we first need to describe a few relevant physical characteristics of hydrogen under specified conditions. Some physical data on hydrogen are (CRC Handbook, 2017;McAllister et al., 2011): 4-75% volume in air (Faizal et al., 2019) A hydrogen-air mix needs an energy input of 0.02 mJ to ignite, petrol-air needs 0.24 mJ (Faizal et al., 2019). As a point of reference, below we sum up some comparable physical data for methane, methanol, gasoline, and diesel (CRC Handbook, 2017;Hawley's, 2016;McAllister et al., 2011) What is interesting to note is that the heat of combustion for hydrogen, at the molar level, is far below the other fuels. ...
... Before we continue, we first need to describe a few relevant physical characteristics of hydrogen under specified conditions. Some physical data on hydrogen are (CRC Handbook, 2017;McAllister et al., 2011): 4-75% volume in air (Faizal et al., 2019) A hydrogen-air mix needs an energy input of 0.02 mJ to ignite, petrol-air needs 0.24 mJ (Faizal et al., 2019). As a point of reference, below we sum up some comparable physical data for methane, methanol, gasoline, and diesel (CRC Handbook, 2017;Hawley's, 2016;McAllister et al., 2011) What is interesting to note is that the heat of combustion for hydrogen, at the molar level, is far below the other fuels. ...
... In conjunction with the physical aspects of hydrogen, we want to shortly list some general characteristics of hydrogen that are of importance with regards to safety. From the literature, the following attributes have been identified, please note that this is not necessarily a complete list (Iabidine Messaoudani et al., 2016;Faizal et al., 2019;Ustolin et al., 2020): ...
The use of hydrogen as a chemical substance versus an energy commodity drastically changes how a production and transport chain should or could be realised. Aside from a change in efficiency and cost considerations, the use of hydrogen as an energy commodity rather than a chemical substance also raises the question of how hazards and risks transform and how they are tackled. Instead of having hydrogen and possible carriers move between industries, they would also be used privately and on a much wider scale. Not only would this completely change the type, severity and location of hazards but would also modify risk. Provided this knowledge, we will elucidate on some theoretical changes, as well as those that have been identified in literature.
... Hydrogen as a fuel is characterized by several favorable properties enabling high efficiency of the combustion process. The most important of these properties are [31]: Wide range of flammability Compared to hydrocarbon fuels, the flammability range of hydrogen is very wide, it ranges from 4 to 76% of the volume content in air [9,21,28] (these values are for example 1-7.6% for diesel oil, and 0.6-5.5% for gasoline). This property allows the engine to run on a very lean mixture. ...
... Making the combustion mixture more lean reduces the speed of flame propagation. The speed of flame propagation and its adiabatic temperature have a significant impact on the thermal efficiency of the engine, the stability of the combustion process and the level of emissions (especially NO x ) [9,19,28]. High stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio ...
... The stoichiometric air-to-fuel (A/F) mass ratio for complete combustion of hydrogen in air is approximately 34.4:1, which is significantly greater than that of gasoline (14.7:1) or diesel (14.5:1) [9,19,28]. Very low energy of ignition The ignition energy of the hydrogen-air mixture is only 0.02 mJ, which is very low compared to a mixture of gasoline with air or diesel fuel with air, which both require 0.24 mJ. Such low ignition energy creates a risk of premature, uncontrolled ignition and flame returning to the engine intake duct. ...
Hydrogen, as a zero-emission fuel, makes it possible to build a piston combustion engine that can be qualified as a drive for a "Zero Emission Vehicles", in terms of CO2 emissions. Thus, a hydrogen-powered piston combustion engine may be a future transitional technology for powertrains, especially in trucks and off-road vehicles, competitive with both electric drives and fuel cells. The article presents a multi-directional analysis of the prospects for the development and dissemination of hydrogen-powered internal combustion piston engines in motor vehicles. The current interest of the automotive industry in hydrogen-powered internal combustion engines, current state of their development and the challenges that need to be overcome were presented. Various conditions that will determine their future in Europe were also indicated.
... The mode of injection plays a crucial role in influencing airflow distribution, impacting the mixing and combustion of hydrogen and air. For hydrogen, direct high-pressure or low-pressure injection (depending on the phase of the cycle) is considered the optimal choice [80][81][82]. This method involves injecting fuel with the intake valve closed, reducing the risk of premature mixture ignition and preventing backfires in the delivery channel. ...
The aim of this article is to review hydrogen combustion applications within the energy transition framework. Hydrogen blends are also included, from the well-known hydrogen enriched natural gas (HENG) to the hydrogen and ammonia blends whose chemical kinetics is still not clearly defined. Hydrogen and hydrogen blends combustion characteristics will be firstly summarized in terms of standard properties like the laminar flame speed and the adiabatic flame temperature, but also evidencing the critical role of hydrogen preferential diffusion in burning rate enhancement and the drastic reduction in radiative emission with respect to natural gas flames. Then, combustion applications in both thermo-electric power generation (based on internal combustion engines, i.e., gas turbines and piston engines) and hard-to-abate industry (requiring high-temperature kilns and furnaces) sectors will be considered, highlighting the main issues due to hydrogen addition related to safety, pollutant emissions, and potentially negative effects on industrial products (e.g., glass, cement and ceramic).
... Therefore, H 2 -ICE can be commercialized faster than fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV), of course depending also on infrastructure availability (for example, for off-road applications, where the fuel can be brought to the location-of-use, deployment is expected to be faster). Therefore, it can be effectively deployed with even less delay and can lead to the reduction in the usage of diesel vehicles gradually in the years ahead [3,15,16]. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) have a great prospect, especially in areas with adequate short ranges. When a longer range is desired, fuel cell electric vehicles can perform well in large, heavy cars and trucks. ...
div class="section abstract"> Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engines (H2-ICEs) are subject to increased attention thanks to their extremely low criteria pollutant emission and near-zero CO2 tailpipe emissions. However, to further minimize exhaust emissions and increase the efficiency of a H2-ICE, it is important to carefully control the relative air-fuel ratio of operation, i.e. Lambda (λ), which will lead in turn to an optimal combustion process. The precise λ control mainly relies upon the methodology to calculate λ on board of the engine, where the availability of reliable sensors specifically-developed for hydrogen combustion is currently limited. In this article, a comparative analysis of different methodologies for the calculation of λ is performed, comparing four methodologies: exhaust gas analysis through a Spindt-Brettschneider approach (λEMI), raw Universal Exhaust Gas Oxygen (λR-UEGO), processed Universal Exhaust Gas Oxygen (λP-UEGO) and speed-density (λSD) outputs. The experimental data used to compare the four methodologies were acquired through detailed and systematic experimentation on a fully-instrumented single-cylinder H2-ICE. Results show that the λP-UEGO is the closest one to the reference Spindt-Brettschneider analysis λEMI and the most robust to ample variations in the nominal λ values. The sensor’s raw UEGO output λR-UEGO is instead affected by the sensor calibration which is usually performed across a range of carbon-based fuels, a procedure that introduces a bias. The results can be used for the selection of the correct methodology to calculate λ in a H2-ICE and to choose optimal sensors for mobile applications.
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... The wide range of flammability limits (4-75% volume in air) guarantees stable and complete combustion also under lean conditions. Highly diluted mixtures reduce combustion temperatures and therefore, NOx emissions, [2] while enhancing fuel saving [3]. Furthermore, hydrogen high self-ignition temperature (585°C) allows for higher compression ratio in spark-ignition engines, thus increasing the idealized thermodynamic cycle efficiency [4]. ...
The European Green Deal for halving greenhouse gases emissions by 2030, compared to those of 1990s, and the resulting conversion in road transport from 2035 imply the need for the automotive field. Hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines show a good potential to satisfy the transition towards the carbon neutrality. In particular, direct injection of hydrogen in spark-ignited internal combustion engines have great efficiency potentialities, nonetheless the design optimization of the injection systems needs extensive analysis for the evaluation of the hydrogen-air mixing processes under different engine operating conditions. Transient simulations of the gas-exchange process and fuel injection and mixing are fully described within this paper for two different commercial CFD codes namely, AVL-Fire and Ansys-Fluent. Both codes use the finite-volume approach to discretize the governing equations. Numerical results from the two commercial codes have been compared against the experimental data provided by the Argonne National Laboratories in terms of contours of fuel mole-fractions and velocity-field vectors, resulting from applying laser-based techniques on an optically accessible, single-cylinder engine.
... Then, it can be utilized on-site or stored for later use or transferred to different locations. These make hydrogen easily obtainable without having access to fossil fuels and industrial-scale equipment [2,3,6,7]. ...
... The first one is lowpressure direct injection (LPDI), where fuel injection occurs when the intake valve is closed and the pressure in the cylinder is low. The second one is high-pressure direct injection (HPDI), where fuel injection occurs at the end of the compression stroke [6,14,15,[46][47][48]. The compression ratio is an equally important issue. ...
Motor vehicles are the backbone of global transport. In recent years, due to the rising costs of fossil fuels and increasing concerns about their negative impact on the natural environment, the development of low-emission power supply systems for vehicles has been observed. In order to create a stable and safe global transport system, an important issue seems to be the diversification of propulsion systems for vehicles, which can be achieved through the simultaneous development of conventional internal combustion vehicles, electric vehicles (both battery and fuel cell powered) as well as combustion hydrogen-powered vehicles. This publication presents an overview of commercial vehicles (available on the market) powered by internal combustion hydrogen engines. The work focuses on presenting the development of technology from the point of view of introducing ready-made hydrogen-powered vehicles to the market or technical solutions enabling the use of hydrogen mixtures in internal combustion engines. The study covers the history of the technology, dedicated hydrogen and bi-fuel vehicles, and vehicles with an engine powered by a mixture of conventional fuels and hydrogen. It presents basic technology parameters and solutions introduced by leading vehicle manufacturers in the vehicle market.
... In addition, the thermal efficiency will decrease if the injected gas remains close to the chamber walls caused by the increase of wall heat losses, which is induced by the short H 2 flame-quenching distance. Therefore, LPDI engine performance in total is still inferior to contemporary diesel CI engines (Yip et al., 2019;Faizal et al., 2019). ...
To achieve future emission targets for internal combustion engines, the use of hydrogen gas generated by renewable energy sources (known as “green” hydrogen) instead of fossil fuels plays a key role in the development of new combustion-based engine concepts. For new hydrogen engine generations, there are different challenges concerning the injector layout and functionality. Especially when talking about direct hydrogen injection, the key challenge is to ensure a proper mixing between hydrogen and the combustion air—the mixing of gas with a gas is not trivial as shown in this article. In terms of injector functionality, it must be ensured that the requested amount of hydrogen gas needs to be provided in time and, on the other hand, accurately metered to provide an appropriate mixing formation quality inside the combustion chamber. This contribution discusses deep injector analysis techniques with pneumatic and optical approaches for an improved overall understanding of functionality and effects caused by operation with a gaseous fuel. A metering technique for gas flow characterization and, for test simplification, a comparison of hydrogen with helium and nitrogen as possible surrogate gases indicate that helium and nitrogen can act as a substitute for hydrogen in functional testing. Furthermore, this contribution focuses on the usability of helium instead of hydrogen for the determination of spray properties. This is shown by the comparison of spray propagation images that were observed with the Schlieren technique in a pressure vessel proving comparable spray properties. In a next step, the usage of spray-guiding devices to improve the global gas distribution during the injection period is discussed. Here, it turns out that the volume increase does obviously not depend on the nozzle design. Thus, the advantage of multi-hole guiding-devices is based on its flexible gas-jet orientation.
