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The damping characteristic of a healthy limb changes throughout the gait cycle. However, for amputees who are wearing mechanically passive damping prosthesis, the lack of ability to change the damping values might expose them to injuries and health problems. The use of magnetorheological fluid damper in prosthetic limb, which provides wide dynamic...
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Citations
... The MR fluid knee features a noncircular rotor resulting in a varying gap magnitude between the rotor and stator. Nordin et al. [80] investigate the MR fluid damper that provides variable damping, relying on the amount of induced magnetic field density. The study aims to reduce injuries and give comfort to riders. ...
The magnetorheological (MR) fluids contain magnetic micro-sized iron particles, non-magnetic-based fluid, and some additives in order to mitigate sedimentation and agglomeration. The various carrier fluids used in the preparation of MR fluids are mineral oil, silicon oil, castor oil, soybean oil, kerosene, synthetic oils, honge oil, organic oil, water-based oils, etc. However, for obtaining better vibration control, silicone oil is the most preferred one due to its higher viscosity index, lower friction characteristics, higher flash point, and higher shear strength. The MR fluids have various application areas such as dampers, prosthetic knees, valves, brakes, clutches, finishing processes etc. The dampers containing MR fluids are used in automobile cushioning for enhancing passenger comfort and MR suspensions significantly improve steering stability in vehicles. In case of MR brakes, the braking torque on the rotating disks is controlled using the generated shear stress. The carbonyl iron (CI) particles exhibit better rheological characteristics as compared to electrolytic iron (EI) particles. The use of MR fluids produces stable and natural limb movement in orthoses, lower limb prostheses, and exoskeletons. The MR fluids also prove to be very significant in polishing applications. There are various issues with preparation methods and difficulties in the storage of MR fluids. The problems encountered in the synthesis of MR fluids include sedimentation, agglomeration, in-use thickening, corrosion, erosion, etc. The impact of particle proportion, particle shapes, and size has been influential in evaluating MR characteristics. The viscosity and shear stress of MR fluid have been mitigated at higher values of temperature and even CI particles get oxidized at higher temperatures. The CI particles as compared to EI particles are the majority favourable particles used for dispersing state within the MR fluids due to their higher value of saturation magnetization, more availability, and lesser cost. The small-sized particles led to lower wettability, whereas larger-sized particles accounted for an increased sedimentation rate. The currently available MR fluids cost is still on the higher side and the preparation of economical MR fluid is still a big challenge for the researchers. The MR fluids storage is also a big concern. The future scope of MR fluid may be in heavy industries such as nuclear, shipbuilding, oil and gas, space and aviation, etc. to achieve the desired damping response.
... (Eshgarf et al., 2022;Seid et al., 2016). The interaction between the resulting induced dipoles causes the particles to organize into current-like structures ( Figure 2) within the carrier liquid (Nordin et al., 2018;Seid et al., 2016). As a result, the change in rheology from the MRF to a near-solid state creates resistance to flow, generating a yield stress perpendicular to the magnetic field (Gao et al., 2017a;Nordin et al., 2018;Seid et al., 2016). ...
... The interaction between the resulting induced dipoles causes the particles to organize into current-like structures ( Figure 2) within the carrier liquid (Nordin et al., 2018;Seid et al., 2016). As a result, the change in rheology from the MRF to a near-solid state creates resistance to flow, generating a yield stress perpendicular to the magnetic field (Gao et al., 2017a;Nordin et al., 2018;Seid et al., 2016). This yield stress is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic field since the amount of mechanical energy required to produce the microstructure increases as the applied field increases (de Vicente et al., 2011;Gao et al., 2017a;Goncalves, 2006;Nguyen et al., 2016). ...
... MRF-based devices can adjust the joint's movement according to the user's needs, allowing amputees to obtain the force or torque necessary (Arteaga et al., 2019a). These damping components are essential to reduce injuries, provide comfort, and protect other joints and parts assembled in the prosthesis (Nordin et al., 2018). Linear and rotary MRF-based dampers have been proposed for prosthetic applications, as described in Figure 7 (Ahamed et al., 2018;Gao et al., 2017b;Lv et al., 2021). ...
Magnetorheological fluids (MRF) are intelligent materials that can vary their yield stress in response to an applied magnetic field. This characteristic, combined with active and multifunctional control, allows the development of actuators with fast response time, low energy consumption, long service life, and reduced dimensions and weights. Various studies have been conducted to improve MR dampers in prosthetic applications, including knees, ankle-foot, hands, and sockets. Here, we present a critical review of the progress of MRFs in the prosthetic field. In addition, research in prostheses’ design, optimization, and control of magnetorheological actuators is investigated, along with MRF modeling, mode of operation, type of MR actuator, classification, and working principle of MRF-based devices. Although MRFs are considered promising materials for designing novel prosthetic devices, this review shows that applications have been predominantly focused on lower limb prostheses. We conclude by discussing possible future applications and challenges that must be faced to enable and improve commercial applications based on MRF technology.
... 3,4 Through reading literature and actual investigations, the design of new bearing concepts, 5,6 bearing geometries, 7,8 and new lubricants 9,10,11,12 are some approaches to increase performance of fluid-film bearing. Magnetorheological fluids (MRF) capable of controllable and reversible rheological properties are widely used in brakes, 13,14 medical instruments, 15,16 dampers, 17,18 sealings, 19,20 and other engineering fields. 21,22 As a result, MRF as intelligent lubrication medium is applied to bearing to obtain the superior controllable performance under different operating situations. ...
In order to address the problems of insufficient load capacity and rotor vibration, an active fluid-film bearing lubricated with magnetorheological fluid (MRF) is proposed. First, the geometry of the MRF fluid-film bearing is designed and its intelligent lubrication mechanism is analyzed to clarify its advantages. In addition, mathematical model of MRF fluid-film bearing-rotor system is derived, and FEM model is utilized to obtain stiffness and damping coefficients to supplement mathematical model. Moreover, an improved gray wolf optimization (IGWO) algorithm is developed to tune the PID controller parameters. The validity of the proposed method is verified by numerical simulation. Furthermore, the simulation results show that with the increasing of current magnitude, the orbits of shaft center decrease. Under the presence of magnetic fields, the shaft center orbits of the MRF bearing can converge to a point, and therefore this bearing has ability to suppress rotor vibration. Finally, IGWO-PID controller has better response characteristics than GWO, PSO, and GA algorithms, and hence the IGWO algorithm can find the more appropriate PID controller parameters, that the validity of the improved algorithm is further proved. Therefore, the active bearing and its research findings provide new reference for MRF vibration control in the field of journal bearing lubrication.
... In recent decades, MR dampers (MRD) have become very popular in controlling vibration in structural and rotordynamics systems. In the last 20 years, MRD has been used to attenuate vibration in various applications like suspension systems in the high-speed train [1,2], buildings and bridges [3][4][5], large washing machines [6][7][8], aircraft landing gear [9,10], helicopter rotor systems [11], and advanced exoskeleton system [12,13], etc. The MRF consists of base oil (silicon oil, mineral oil, synthetic oil), magnetic particles (electrolytic iron, carbonyl iron, nickel, cobalt), additives (aerosol 200, white grease, oleic acid), and surfactants (oleic acid, citric acid). ...
The magnetorheological damper (MRD) is a smart damper that can produce a wide range of damping forces with respect to the diferent current supply. The said damper contains magnetorheological fuid (MRF), whose property helped to achieve controlled viscous force that enables to attenuate the system’s vibration. This paper analyzes the weight reduction and damping force variations by changing MRD’s piston confguration and annular gap. The annular gap is varied from 0.5 to 1 mm with a step size of 0.25 mm, and the piston has a chamfer of 2 mm at diferent locations. Six diferent MRD models are designed with diferent confgurations named MRD1 to MRD6, respectively. The magnetic fux density is also calculated through the magnetic reluctance circuit of the MRD model. The damping force is estimated by considering the magnetic fux density at diferent magnitudes of current in the annular gap of the damper model. The MRD4 having both sides chamfer on the piston of the pole length zone shows a lesser weight by 1.5% than the simple MRD model. The MRD4 model obtains a signifcant amount of magnetic force, which is 22% more than the MRD1. The analytical results were compared with the simulated result, and it found the magnetic fux density was altered by 3.5%. This study may be benefcial for the selection of the best MRD model with respect to maximum magnetic force and reduced weight.
... This event was soon followed by significant developments such as the first hydraulic knee in 1947, SACH (solid ankle cushion heel) introduced by Anthony Staros in 1957, a computer-aided robotic arm in 1980, and a motor-powered lower limb prosthetic in 2012 [7]. Implementation of unique properties of MR (magnetorheological) effect as a brake for lower limb prosthetics [8], and by 2020, Nathan Brown et al., conducted research to improve the comfort of amputees by proposing the use of metamaterials as a liner in socket for a transtibial prosthetic [9]. In ancient Egypt, wooden prosthetic toes and feet were crafted for amputees. ...
Prosthetics have come a long way since their inception, and recent advancements in materials science have enabled the development of prosthetic devices with improved functionality and comfort. One promising area of research is the use of auxetic metamaterials in prosthetics. Auxetic materials have a negative Poisson's ratio, which means that they expand laterally when stretched, unlike conventional materials, which contract laterally. This unique property allows for the creation of prosthetic devices that can better conform to the contours of the human body and provide a more natural feel. In this review article, we provide an overview of the current state of the art in the development of prosthetics using auxetic metamaterials. We discuss the mechanical properties of these materials, including their negative Poisson's ratio and other properties that make them suitable for use in prosthetic devices. We also explore the limitations that currently exist in implementing these materials in prosthetic devices, including challenges in manufacturing and cost. Despite these challenges, the future prospects for the development of prosthetic devices using auxetic metamaterials are promising. Continued research and development in this field could lead to the creation of more comfortable, functional, and natural-feeling prosthetic devices. Overall, the use of auxetic metamaterials in prosthetics represents a promising area of research with the potential to improve the lives of millions of people around the world who rely on prosthetic devices.
... So far, MR dampers have been studied by several researchers [13][14][15][16][17] for below-knee prosthetics. Arteaga et al. [13] implemented a prototype leg prosthesis that considers using an actuator with a magnetorheological fluid, LORD MRF-140 CG. ...
... Li et al. [15] developed a prosthetic ankle joint that is intelligently stabilized by a specifically created linear MR brake. Nordin et al. [16] investigated the application of a magnetorheological fluid damper in a transtibial (below-knee) prosthetic limb using adaptive control techniques through simulation studies since the damping characteristics of a healthy limb change throughout the walking cycle. Arteaga et al. [17] revealed that an extremely unnatural stride results from an amputee walking with a transtibial prosthesis that lacks sufficient range of motion and cushioning. ...
Background
Magnetorheological (MR) fluid has recently been used in a variety of applications, including vibration control, prostheses, and tactile devices. A magnetic field is used to control the rheological properties of the MR fluid (MRF), allowing for a high pressure drop, high shear stress, and reversibility of these features. The modifiability imparts smartness to the material, and recent studies have investigated their behavior extensively.PurposeThe present work involves the design of an MR fluid-based actuator to function as an ankle in a prosthetic foot.Methods
The initial design constraint of the MR valve and stroke length of the MR damper have been identified based on anthropometric constraints and biomechanical requirements of below-knee amputees (BKA). Second, magnetostatic analysis has been performed to solve an approximated parametric magnetic model (PMM) based on linear electromagnetic systems. Finally, finite element magnetostatic (FEMS) analysis was conducted to understand the magnetic flux density (MFD) of the MR fluid and the pressure drop was modeled and obtained using the Bingham model. Next, optimization of the damper was done. For this, the optimization goal functions were to (a) maximize damping force and (b) minimize the mass of the damper valve (by minimizing the volume of the damper and MR fluid), hence minimizing the weight of the prosthetic ankle. The geometric dimensions of the MR valve are optimized using an integration of a multi-objective genetic algorithm (MOGA) in MATLAB and FEMS in ANSYS APDL software. MOGA chooses values for design variables that are constrained within the specified bounds, and they are coupled by the FEMS analysis; this routine is automated and repeated for all possible values within the specified bounds.ResultsIt was observed that the results of MFD computed from PMM are valid for low ranges of current; however, it over-estimates MFD beyond 0.5 A. Furthermore, optimal solutions obtained are plotted on a Pareto front, which satisfies the objective function of maximizing the damping force and minimizing the weight of the damper. The optimization findings show trade-offs between damping force and damper mass.Conclusions
The optimized outcomes show enhancements in the cost function as compared to the unoptimized values. The proposed methodology integrating FEMS and MOGA shows promise and can be extended to other applications of MR dampers as well.
... To accommodate the drawbacks of PID control, since the MR damper is nonlinear, fuzzy PID control is designed based on trajectory tracking to control the current to the MR damper, thus providing the desired braking, and the results are proven to be satisfactory with minimum error. The MR damper is tested experimentally to obtain a springmass-damper model of the same [99], [100]. Proportionalintegral-derivative (PID) control and fuzzy PID control are applied to the MR damper-knee prosthesis model, as shown in Fig. 33, and the performance is compared. ...
... The proposed fuzzy PID controller provides better damping and shock absorption than PID control. [99] The finite state control scheme is dependent on the state of the sensors employed in the rehabilitative devices. It is considered an efficient control algorithm since the finite states can be defined priorly to achieve good control. ...
Over the past decade, rehabilitative devices have undergone significant advancements. Orthoses, which are assistive limb devices, have transitioned from passive supportive devices to active or semiactive devices with adjustable damping. Similarly, prosthetic limb-replacement devices for amputees have shifted towards the integration of semiactive dampers instead of passive or bulky dampers. The implementation of semiactive damping is achieved through the use of smart magnetorheological (MR) fluids that can modify their viscosity based on the input current, resulting in reduced power consumption. This article focuses mainly on modelling, sensors and control strategies in MR damper-based rehabilitative devices since these areas contribute to the development of the overall end product. There have been notable improvements in the modelling of human knee joints and the damping system components, aiming to achieve more efficient damping control. Traditional mathematical equations, such as Lagrangian and Newtonian formulations, have been supplemented with machine learning algorithms. Additionally, the utilization of various sensor combinations to measure knee/ankle joint angles has advanced. These sensors range from basic mechanical sensors to wireless inertial and piezoelectric sensors, enabling faster and more diverse communication. Furthermore, control algorithms have also witnessed a progression from classical control approaches to more sophisticated strategies such as fuzzy control and neural network controllers. These advanced control algorithms enhance the overall performance and responsiveness of the rehabilitative devices. However, there are certain disadvantages found in MR fluids, sensors, modelling and control algorithms that are discussed further in this review article. This review explores the developments in different rehabilitative devices that integrate modelling, sensors, and control designs to achieve optimal and efficient outcomes.
... Their future work focuses on completing the fabrication and clinical trials. Nordin et al. [43] simulated the variable MRF damper for prosthetic knee using a fuzzy-proportional-integral-derivative adaptive controller (Fuzzy-PID) for varying frequency. They simulated in MATLAB SIMULINK using the inertial parameters acquired from the OpenSim model. ...
Magnetorheological fluid is a field-responsive material. The rheological properties of magnetorheological fluid can be precisely controlled and reversed. This change in rheological property controls the damping force by an externally applied magnetic field and makes them suitable for automotive, structural, manufacturing, and military applications. In the last two decades, it has gained a significant impact in the field of intelligent healthcare devices. Various biomedical devices had been developed to mimic and restore the gait cycle for the amputees. However, MR-based devices provide real-time controlled damping to improve the gait cycle. This review briefly discusses the tailor-made properties of magnetorheological fluid based on their constituents and stabilization methods. And, it also addresses the significant contributions of magnetorheological fluid in the lower-limb prosthetic devices.KeywordsMagnetorheological fluidProsthetic devicesSemi-active devices
... It is also noted that MRF technology has been applied to the brake system [10,11], military application [12,13] and bridge vibration control [14]. In addition, recent studies have attempted to utilize MRF products in prosthetic [15,16], rehabilitation [17] and exercise devices that require custom control through miniaturization and increased dynamic control range [18]. It is also well known that the devices or systems utilizing MRF are inherently influenced by the working modes; shear mode [19,20], flow mode [21,22], squeeze mode [23] and hybrid mode [24]. ...
... Consequently, depending on the input current, B MR , which is the unknown variable of magnetic flux density, it can be calculated using equation (16). To verify the result of analytical model, the magnetic finite element method (FEM) analysis is performed with B-H curve, which is the intrinsic properties of materials as shown in figure 6 [36]. ...
... Five values of the relative permeability to represent the B-H curve of MRF are selected in this work based on the trial-error and given in table 1. According to the applied current, five relative permeability values were used in the equations (12)- (16) and applied to the magnetic field analysis. The FEM analysis is performed using the commercial software ANSYS Maxwell. ...
A small-sized brake generating the torque less than 0.5 Nm is very attractive to achieve desired dynamic motions in many different fields such as medical haptic and auto door closure. In this work, a controllable compact-sized brake utilizing a magnetorheological fluid (MRF) is proposed and its effectiveness is validated through simulation and experiment. Unlike conventional shear mode magnetorheological brake (MRB), a mixed mode MRB (M-MRB) featuring both the flow and shear mode operations is designed to obtain high torque efficiency in which both the key shape and ring shape structures play the significant role. Through these structures, the proposed M-MRB can provide higher torque with the relatively less amount of MRF than conventional shear mode MRB. The key shape structure is fixed to the rotor and shaft of MRB and rotates in same direction. Then, MRF on the front and back of the barrier is subjected to the pressure difference resulting in the field-dependent torque generation. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed design concept, a small-sized M-MRB is designed and manufactured considering the required torque level and space constraint of auto door closure applicable to autonomous vehicle systems. It is identified through a reasonable comparison between the proposed M-MRB and conventional MRB that the proposed one can improve controllable torque range up to 325% with less MR fluid than conventional MRB.
... As a healthy subject step through a gait cycle, the damping force varies based on the flexion angles and other forces (Nordin et al., 2018). The MR fluid is a type of innovative material that is capable of altering its rheological property. ...
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to design and analyze a controlled magnetorheological damper-based ankle-foot prosthesis prototype.
Design/methodology/approach – The ankle-foot prostheses prototype is proposed using the lightweight three dimensional (3 D)-printed parts,
MR damper and digital servomotor. Initially, the computer-aided design (CAD) model of the prosthetic foot, leaf spring, retention spring and the
various connecting parts required to connect the pylon and damper actuator assemblies are designed using CAD software. Later, the fused
deposition modeling 3 D printer-based technique prints a prosthetic foot and other connecting parts using Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene filament.
The prototype consists of two control parts: the first part controls the MR actuator that absorbs the impacts during walking. The second part is the
control of the electric actuator intended to generate the dorsiflexion and plantar flexion movements. Finally, the prototype is tested on a transtibial
amputee under the supervision of a prosthetist.
Findings – The ANalysis SYStems software-based analysis has shown that the prosthetic foot has a factor of safety values between 4.7 and 8.7 for
heel strike, mid-swing and toe-off; hence, it is safe from mechanical failure. The designed MR damper-based ankle-foot prosthesis prototype is
tested on an amputee for a level-ground walk; he felt comfortable compared to his passive prosthesis.
Originality/value – The design of an MR damper-based prosthesis prototype offers a better dynamic range for locomotion than passive prostheses.
It reduces the injuries and provides relief to the transtibial amputees.
