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Lombok Island is categorized as a small island with an area o f 4738.7 km2 which makes it susceptible to climate change. Climate change is thought to have reduced the ability of forest biophysical and can cause damage to the ecosystem or a shifting of forest ecosystems. The purpose of this study is to identify the ecosystem changes in Lombok Island...
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... of the Lombok Island are very interesting to study considering the beauty of coastal ecosystems in the South and mountain ecosystems with the Mount Rinjani dominates the West of Lombok Island. In addition, Lombok Island is a border region between the flora and fauna of Asia and Australia and form unique ecosystem diversity. However, Lombok Island is categorized as a small island with an area of 4738.7 km2 which makes it susceptible to climate change. Climate change is thought to have reduced the ability of forest biophysical and can cause damage to the ecosystem or a shift of forest ecosystems. There has been a research on climate change on ecosystem zones in Lombok Island which has shown the shifted climate types in the period 1961-2008 [1]. However, in that study, the climate data obtained only from meteorological stations of Selaparang and Kediri, thus the distribution of climate zones and ecosystems is not very representative of actual conditions. Therefore, further study is needed using a geospatial approach to see the distribution of climate zones and ecosystems of Lombok Island. This previous study showed that there have been some changes in Lombok Island on its climate which is characterized by the changing trend of rainfall, temperature and climate types. The impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems include mangrove forest ecosystem devastation, loss of endemic species, decreased in land cover, as well as reduced quality and quantity of springs. Therefore, climate change information and the resulting impacts need to be updated to support the optimization of adaptation and mitigation of climate change so as to reduce the risk of ecological damages. The purpose of this study is to determine the ecosystem zones spatially and identify the ecosystem change in historical data in Lombok Island based on the climate historical data. The results of this study are expected to be the basis of the data that is important to formulate mitigation and adaptation strategies to deal with the climate change, particularly on the Lombok Island landscape. This research was done by analyze the climate data and classify the ecosystem zones. To determine the result of the research there will be some problems which are stated below: 1. How to classify the ecosystem of an area? 2. How are the changes of the ecosystem zone in the Lombok Island? 3. How was the climate change affect to the ecosystem zone in the Lombok Island? Research study area covers the entire area of the island of Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara (Figure 1). Field observations and ground truthing will be conducted on Lombok Island at some points in the region in accordance with the results of the determination of the sampling area will be undertaken ahead of the field observations. While the analysis and synthesis will be performed in Bogor, West Java. The scope of this study is limited to landscape change of Lombok Island using historical climate data from 1975 to 2012. Figure 2 shows that data collecting process covers observation tabular data from climate station and also base map to be used in data processing and analyzing with GIS approach. GIS approach is used to obtain biotemperature and precipitation data which are required for the ecosystem zones classification process. Ecosystem zones to be classified using Holdridge Life Zones method as it correlates to climate factor which would be explained in the next section (subchapter 2.3). Ground truthing is conducted to validate the result derived from this study to verify the current existing condition with the description obtained from analysis result. Ecosystem zones were determined using Holdridge Life Zones classification system to assess the impact of climate change on ecosystem zones. The Holdridge Life Zones system correlates climatic indices with 37 life zones ranging from polar desert to wet tropical rainforest. It uses two main variables in determining classification, average biotemperature and average annual precipitation [2]. The average rainfall annually (mm) is used for precipitation data . Biotemperature (BT) is a unit of measurement of energy used in the life zone chart where this unit shows the average value of the air temperature in Celsius is used for growing crops. This temperature range is between 0°C as the minimum point and 30°C as the maximum point (0°C <T <30°C). The ratio of annual potential evapotranspiration as the third variable is a function of biotemperature and precipitation. Therefore, this is not required as input for the life-zone classification scheme [3]. Holdridge Life Zones diagram (Figure 3) is a graphical classification of zone ecosystems on earth that shows the relationship of the mountains and lowland vegetation based on latitude, elevation, precipitation and air temperature [2]. Classification zones are a rough model that can predict potential forest types that can grow optimally in regions with certain climatic conditions. This diagram is formed using two identical axes for average annual precipitation to make up two sides of an equilateral triangle. The third side of the triangle is a logarithmic axis for potential evapotranspiration (PET) ratio measured in millimeters per year (mm/yr). Axes for mean annual biotemperature are set to the base of the triangle [4]. Since the number of surface observation station for temperature database availability is inadequate, temperature data should be derived from DEM (satellite image) and will be references to existing data point from surface observation of Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics Agency (BMKG). Meanwhile, the precipitation data collected from 33 rainfall observation station of Sub Directorate of Hydrology and Water Quality. Data analysis was performed using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to analyze the spatial distribution of climate zones and ecosystems to facilitate interpretation from these data. Spatial data processing was done by interpolation to estimate values at unknown locations or adjacent points [5]. Ecosystem zones are determined using Holdridge Life Zones method with historical climate data from 1975 to 2010. Climate data used in this study consists of biotemperature and rainfall data. Temperature data derived from DEM data analysis to create a biotemperature map, while areal rainfall map obtained from the analysis of Thiessen Polygon. Holdridge [2] proposed a life zone classification to predict the potential vegetation of a region for values of climatic indices. Life zones are delimited by bio-temperature, precipitation, and potential evaporation ratio. In particular, the system is based on two factors: mean annual biotemperature and mean annual precipitation [6]. Based upon study of several ecosystems, Holdridge assumes that the potential evaporation ratio (PET) is proportional to biotemperature with a proportionality constant of 58.93. PET is therefore not an independent variable but simply derived from the two primary variables of precipitation and biotemperature [4]. Spatial data processing on this study, as described on figure 4, consists of climate data analysis to create the climatic map which then can be used to perform the ecosystem zone analysis based on Holdridge Life Zones classification system. Result was validated with ground truthing to verify the recent existing ecosystem. Data used for spatial processing analysis on this study include the administration map, SRTM data, and climate observation station map of Lombok Island. Administration map is used to provide the area identification, and also to clip the other spatial maps according to the boundary of Lombok Island. SRTM data used are in ARC GRID, ARC ASCII and Geotiff format with 6000 x 6000 pixels, in decimal degrees and datum WGS84. Climate observation stations are shown on the map according to its coordinate which then can be included the historical climate data information attribute for each station point. Biotemperature defined as the mean of unit-period temperatures with substitution of zero for all temperature values below 0°C and above 30°C. On this study, air temperature was estimated by using Braak equation. The higher the elevation, the lower is the air temperature ...
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... The combination of bio-temperature and precipitation values creates 37 ecosystem zones called life zones. Bio temperature index and precipitation index were determined based on the value category of each life zone, which was referred to as the Holdridge Life Zones classification scheme (Sapta et al., 2015). The preliminary ecosystem zone map shows the life zone classification in the study area for 2010 and 2020. ...
Reliable estimates of how human activities may affect wildlife populations are critical for making scientifically sound resource management decisions. A significant issue in estimating the consequences of management, development, or conservation measures is the need to account for a variety of biotic and abiotic factors, such as land use and climate change, that interact over time altering wildlife habitats and populations. The snow leopard Panthera uncia (Schreber, 1775), as a vulnerable species, is extremely sensitive to indirect impacts of climate change. Given that it is highly difficult undertaking conservation measures on the entire range of snow leopards, identifying hotspots for conservation is necessary. This study was conducted in Bagrot and Haramosh valleys, in the Trans-Himalayan region, to evaluate the impacts of climate and human pressure on snow leopard habitat. Hybrid classification of Landsat satellite data for 2010 and 2020 was performed to elucidate land use changes that suggested a decrease in permanent snow by 10 % and 3 % in Haramosh and Bagrot while an increase in settlements cover by 16 % and 23 %, respectively. Life zone comparison for 2010 and 2020 using the Holdridge life zone (HLZ) classification system disclosed a change from three life zones to five life zones in Haramosh, and four life zones to five life zones in Bagrot, caused by a temperature increase of 2 • C to 3 • C, indicating that the area is becoming more and more suitable for settlements and less favorable for snow leopards. This study underlines again that mountainous regions are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Warming weather is making survival more difficult for snow leopards. Although they are resilient to the direct effects of climate change, indirect impacts like avalanches , flash floods, urbanization, and human-wildlife conflict make them more vulnerable and threaten their survival. Thus, we recommend establishing further protected areas, better controlling illegal wildlife trade, and conducting genetic studies to understand impacts on snow leopards and rangeland management, livelihood improvement, and human-wildlife conflict reductions.
... The ecosystems of Lombok Island exhibit dominance by patchy and fragmented savanna and grassland ecosystems, alongside lowland tropical rain forests, upland tropical forests, and sub-alpine vegetation, owing to the dry temperature and arid ecosystems. Additionally, the island features numerous meadows and shrublands (Sapta et al. 2015). ...
Modeling climate change impacts under future CCM3 scenario on sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) as an drought resilient crop in tropical arid Lombok Island, Indonesia. Intl J Trop Drylands 8: 35-43. The arid ecosystems and drought conditions exacerbated by climate change and rising CO2 levels necessitate the identification of alternative drought-tolerant crops. Sorghum bicolor L. has emerged as a promising option due to its resilience to drought. However, there is dearth of information regarding its future potential distribution, particularly in arid regions like Lombok Island, Indonesia, where sorghum is being considered as a viable alternative to ensure food security. This study employs Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) modeling, incorporating environmental and bioclimatic variables, along with the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Community Climate Model (CCM3) scenario reflecting doubled CO2 levels, to model the future potential distribution of S. bicolor. The model projects a total suitable habitat area of 1,875 km 2 , constituting 39.56% of Lombok Island's land area. Notably, very high-suitability areas of 175 km 2 , and high-suitability areas of 200 km 2 encompass 3.69% and 4.22% of the island's territory, respectively, predominantly concentrated in the southern region of the island and characterized by low precipitation and high temperatures, particularly at altitudes ranging from 0 to 1,000 meters. The model's performance, evaluated using the Area Under the Curve (AUC), yields a score of 0.725, indicating a good level of accuracy. Key factors influencing sorghum distribution include annual precipitation (68.69%), isothermality (9.56%), temperature seasonality (9.56%), precipitation seasonality (8.69%), and annual mean temperature (3.47%). The CCM3 model forecasts an expansion of sorghum distribution toward the north, occupying approximately 6.25% of Lombok's total area. These findings highlight sorghum's adaptability and resilience to future climate changes, positioning it as a valuable resource for sustainable agriculture in arid environments.
... Lombok Island, Indonesia, is a habitat for tropical biodiversity. It is categorized as a small island with an area of 4738.7 km 2 (Sapta et al. 2015). The biogeography of Lombok Island belongs to the Wallacea region located between the Sunda and Sahul Shelves, with the Wallace and Lydekker lines as boundaries. ...
... Thus, flora and fauna in this region are a transition between Southeast Asia and Australia. Sapta et al. (2015) suggested that Lombok Island is a border region between flora and fauna of Asia and Australia and form unique ecosystem diversity. As a tropical Island in the Wallacea region, Lombok has a wide variety of endemic flora and fauna with several types of habitats in tropical rainforests and orchards. ...
Hudiwaku S, Himawan T, Rizali A. 2021. Diversity and species composition of fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Lombok Island, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 22: 4608-4616. Fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) are pests of several horticultural crops that can reduce the quality and quantity of fruit production. Information on fruit flies in Lombok Island, Indonesia, is still limited. However, it is predicted to have a high diversity of fruit flies because this island belongs to the Wallacea region. The aims of this research was to study the diversity and species composition of fruit flies in different habitat types in Lombok Island. The research was carried out on two habitat types, i.e., tropical rainforest and orchard with each habitat type consisted of three different sites that located spread across Lombok Island as replication. The research was carried out on two habitat types, i.e., tropical rainforest and orchard, with each habitat type consisted of three different sites spread across Lombok Island as replication. A sampling of fruit flies was conducted using parapheromone traps from March to June 2020. Twenty-two species and 210,267 individual fruit flies were collected from all locations during the study period. The most dominant species were Bactrocera carambolae, Bactrocera limbifera, Zeugodacus caudatus, and Bactrocera dorsalis. Based on the ANOVA, habitat types significantly affected the abundance but not the species richness of fruit flies. The visualization results obtained from the NMDS ordination indicated a difference in the species composition of fruit flies between the two habitats. In conclusion, habitat types are an essential factor in shaping the community of fruit flies in Lombok Island.
... Although this technique performs well mainly at the equator and its surroundings (Isaac and Bourque 2001;Lin 2003;Sapta et al. 2015), as we can see, it has also been tried to apply at mid-latitudes. This is due to the fact that several validation experiments have shown that under certain conditions, a HLZ map reflects with sufficient accuracy the potential vegetation of a region. ...
The Holdridge life zone (HLZ) method is applied to map potential vegetation types in Turkey. The HLZ map is compared to a map of actual vegetation in order to assess the degradation status of vegetation in Turkey. Data required to identify HLZ classes are provided by the General Directorate of Meteorology, while the current vegetation status is estimated with data provided by the General Directorate of Forestry. After weather data are cleaned and missing values are replaced, the HLZ type is estimated for each station, and then thematic maps are created using the ArcGIS software. The study reveals that there are 12 HLZ types in Turkey. The three dominant types are as follows: cool temperate steppe, warm temperate dry forest, and cool temperate moist forest. In regions where physical geographical controls change in short distances, the biodiversity is greater, and linked to this, the HLZ diversity also appears to be greater. Comparing the identified life zones to the actual vegetation, in some areas, remarkable mismatches can be found. Although, in some regions, the life zone type is consistent with the land cover type, in some narrow areas, the potential vegetation does not reflect features of the current vegetation cover. Considering limitations and capabilities of the assessment approach used in this study, we think that the incompatibility between actual and modelled vegetation types in the eastern region of Turkey is caused by the intensive landscape use. The goal of this research is to support future bioclimatic studies and land use management strategies.
... Based on published scientific works of 1975-2017 period, we identified 28 studies applying Braak's equation, ranging from local scale to regional scale (i.e. Southeast Asia), with various purposes, i.e. for estimating cloud height based on temperature difference between cloud and land surface [12]; for bioclimatic analysis in developing ecological guidelines for land development and management of humid tropical forest environments [13]; for assessing biodiversity on species distribution and abundance of montane to sub-alpine zones [14]; for drought analysis [15]; for ecosystem change study [16]; for epidemiology analysis of dengue fever [17]; for landscape planning [18]; for rice crop modelling [19]; and for land suitability analyses for agricultural cropping systems, forestry/tree-based planting systems, and animal husbandry (e.g [20] and 19 similar studies by others). ...
... En los últimos tiempos, los avances científicos y computacionales han permitido un desarrollo más detallado y rigurosos de modelos de distribución dedicados a este tipo de análisis [8], [9]. A pesar de estos avances el modelo de zonas de vida de Holdridge continúa a ser ampliamente utilizado en estudios de cambios climáticos debido a su practicidad y accesibilidad universal [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15]. ...
Öz: İçinde bulunan çevrenin özellikleri iklim-vejetasyon sınıflandırma yöntemleri sayesinde daha kolay bir şekilde tasvir edilebilir. Bu çalışmanın amacı Türkiye'deki yaşam-alanlarını belirlemek ve bu alanların arazideki gerçek bitki-örtüsü ile karşılaştırmaktır. Bu amaçla bir tür iklim ve vejetasyon sınıflandırma yöntemi olan Holdridge yöntemi uygulandı. Çalışmada, Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından sağlanan 1970 ile 2016 yılları arasındaki aylık ortalama sıcaklık ve yağış verileri kullanıldı. Eksik veriler ise Kriking yönteminin Fortran95 temelli bir yazılımı geliştirilerek tamamlandı. Ancak, ilgili meteoroloji istasyondaki eksik verilerin oranı %7'sinden fazla ise değerlendirme dışı tutuldu. Ek olarak, verilere homojenlik testi uygulandı ve %95 güven seviyesinde testi başaran veri dikkate alındı. Yöntemde kullanılan veriler ise yağış, bio-sıcaklık ve potansiyel buharlaşma oranıdır. Elde edilen yaşam-alan verilerin haritaları, ArcGIS 10.2 Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri (CBS) içindeki Thiessen poligonlar methodu uygulanarak üretildi. Elde edilen ana sonuçlara göre, Türkiye'de 12 farklı yaşam zonu mevcuttur. Bu yaşam-alanları sıklık sırasına göre, "Serin ılıman step", "Sıcak ılıman kuru orman" ve "Serin ılıman nemli orman" şeklinde sıralanır. Bu yaşam-alanların toplam içindeki oranı %77 civarındadır. Çalışmanın bir başka sonucu ise, yükselti ve eğimin fazla olduğu alanlarda ve yoğun bitki örtüsü türünün gözlemlendiği nemli kıyı bölgelerinde birden fazla yaşam-zonuna ait özelliklerin görülmesidir. Diğer taraftan, Türkiye'deki iklim ve bitki-örtüsü etkileşim ilişkileri dikkate alındığında, Holdridge yöntemi ile bulunan yaşam-alanlarından bazıları gözlenen bitki-örtüsü özelliklerini yansıtmamaktadır. Bu durum, ancak yanlış arazi-kullanımı politikaları ve kuvvetlenen iklim değişikliği ile açıklanabilir. Dolayısıyla, çalışmanın ileride arazi-kullanım planlarında karar vericilere destekler sunacağını öneriyoruz. Abstract: The surrounding features can be more easily depicted by means of climate-vegetation classification methods. The aim of this study is to determine the life-zones in Turkey and to compare them with the actual vegetation-cover in the related areas. For this purpose, a kind of climate and vegetation classification method called Holdridge Life-Zone (HLZ) method was applied. In the application, monthly average temperature and precipitation values from 1970 to 2016 provided by the General Directorate of Turkish Meteorology Service were used. In the case of complete the missing data kriging method, a Fortran95 based source code was developed. However, if the proportion of missing data in the related meteorological station is more than 7%, it is removed. In addition, the homogeneity test was performed on the data, and the set that achieved the test at the 95% confidence level were considered. The data used in the method are precipitation, bio-temperature and potential evaporation ratio. The maps of the acquired HLZ were generated by applying the Thiessen polygons method in the ArcGIS 10.2 Geographic Information Systems (GIS). According to the main results, 12 different life zones are obtained in Turkey. These are: "Cool temperate steppe", "Warm temperate dry forest" and "Cool temperate moist forest" according to their frequency. The proportion of these life zones within the total is about 77%. Another consequence of the work is that there are more than one life-zone features in the areas with * İletişim yazarı: Mehmet Kadri Tekin,
