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The cow-side diagnosis of reproductive tract disease (RTD) involves identifying the presence of purulent vaginal discharge (PVD) and ultrasonographic endometritis (UE). The objectives of our study were to obtain prevalence estimates for RTD diagnosed by 2 methods (PVD and UE scoring) and to investigate the risk factors for increased probability of...
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... approximate mean date of calving each year was February 18, and the mean DIM at PBE was 50 d, corresponding to a mean date of examination of April 9, approximately 3 wk before the typical mating start date of the herds of May 1. We found a positively skewed distribution of DIM at first examination, summarized in Figure 2. The incidences of assisted calvings, RFM, stillbirth, and twins were 10.5, 1.8, 3.9, and 2.0%, respectively. ...
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... found an interaction (P < 0.01) between the presence of a corpus luteum on an ovary and DIM at examination. This interaction indicates that the probability of UE was higher when cows were examined earlier in milk if they had a corpus luteum present than if they did not, but the probability was much greater if a corpus luteum was not present and they were examined later in milk (Supplemental Figure S2; https: / / doi .org/ 10 .3168/ jds .2019 ...
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... found an interaction (P < 0.01) between dam breed and calving difficulty score, indicating that if a Jersey cow had considerable calving difficulty (score ≥3), she had a higher probability (predicted probability = 0.212) of PVD or UE than a Holstein Friesian cow experiencing considerable calving difficulty (predicted probability = 0.096). We found an interaction (P < 0.01) between the presence of a corpus luteum on an ovary and DIM at examination, as seen in model 2. This interaction again indicated that the probability of PVD or UE was higher when cows were examined earlier in milk if they had a corpus luteum present than if they did not, but the probability was much greater if a corpus luteum was not present and they were examined later in milk (Supplemental Figure S2; https: / / doi .org/ 10 .3168/ jds .2019 ...
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... prevalence of both PVD and UE was 3.5% (90/2,589) between 25 and 49 DIM in the present study, and as far as we are aware, this has not been stated in any other previous published work. Dubuc et al. (2010a) found that the prevalence of both cytological endometritis (≥6% PMN) and PVD (≥mucopurulent) was 5.8% (61/1,044) at 35 DIM, which was higher than the present study but was likely due to the poor sensitivity of ultrasound to identify cytological endometritis, a fact that has been noted by others (Barlund et al., 2008). ...
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... the likely under-reporting, the significant interaction between RFM and DIM found in all models in the present study is an interesting finding. This interaction suggests that the probability of a positive diagnosis by either Metricheck or ultrasound is much higher in a cow who has RFM when examined early in milk than if she is examined later, when the probability of a positive diagnosis converges with that of a cow without RFM (Figure 2). This stresses the importance-especially in compact calving grazing systems-of targeting examinations earlier in milk to those who have RFM, particularly if these cows are also later calving and do not have the same amount of time to recover before breeding commences. ...
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... The interaction implied that cows with a corpus luteum present and examined at approximately <37 DIM (model 2) and <32 DIM (model 3) had a higher likelihood of a positive diagnosis than those without a corpus luteum (Supplemental Figure S2). However, beyond approximately 32 to 37 DIM, the presence of a corpus luteum at PBE reduced the likelihood of a positive diagnosis (Supplemental Figure S2). ...
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... interaction implied that cows with a corpus luteum present and examined at approximately <37 DIM (model 2) and <32 DIM (model 3) had a higher likelihood of a positive diagnosis than those without a corpus luteum (Supplemental Figure S2). However, beyond approximately 32 to 37 DIM, the presence of a corpus luteum at PBE reduced the likelihood of a positive diagnosis (Supplemental Figure S2). Some have reported that cows with an early resumption of cyclicity (before 21 DIM) had lower odds of subclinical endometritis at 49 DIM than cows that had not resumed cyclicity by 49 DIM ( Galvão et al., 2010). ...
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... approximate mean date of calving each year was February 18, and the mean DIM at PBE was 50 d, corresponding to a mean date of examination of April 9, approximately 3 wk before the typical mating start date of the herds of May 1. We found a positively skewed distribution of DIM at first examination, summarized in Figure 2. The incidences of assisted calvings, RFM, stillbirth, and twins were 10.5, 1.8, 3.9, and 2.0%, respectively. ...
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... found an interaction (P < 0.01) between the presence of a corpus luteum on an ovary and DIM at examination. This interaction indicates that the probability of UE was higher when cows were examined earlier in milk if they had a corpus luteum present than if they did not, but the probability was much greater if a corpus luteum was not present and they were examined later in milk (Supplemental Figure S2; https: / / doi .org/ 10 .3168/ jds .2019 ...
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... found an interaction (P < 0.01) between dam breed and calving difficulty score, indicating that if a Jersey cow had considerable calving difficulty (score ≥3), she had a higher probability (predicted probability = 0.212) of PVD or UE than a Holstein Friesian cow experiencing considerable calving difficulty (predicted probability = 0.096). We found an interaction (P < 0.01) between the presence of a corpus luteum on an ovary and DIM at examination, as seen in model 2. This interaction again indicated that the probability of PVD or UE was higher when cows were examined earlier in milk if they had a corpus luteum present than if they did not, but the probability was much greater if a corpus luteum was not present and they were examined later in milk (Supplemental Figure S2; https: / / doi .org/ 10 .3168/ jds .2019 ...
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... prevalence of both PVD and UE was 3.5% (90/2,589) between 25 and 49 DIM in the present study, and as far as we are aware, this has not been stated in any other previous published work. Dubuc et al. (2010a) found that the prevalence of both cytological endometritis (≥6% PMN) and PVD (≥mucopurulent) was 5.8% (61/1,044) at 35 DIM, which was higher than the present study but was likely due to the poor sensitivity of ultrasound to identify cytological endometritis, a fact that has been noted by others (Barlund et al., 2008). ...
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... the likely under-reporting, the significant interaction between RFM and DIM found in all models in the present study is an interesting finding. This interaction suggests that the probability of a positive diagnosis by either Metricheck or ultrasound is much higher in a cow who has RFM when examined early in milk than if she is examined later, when the probability of a positive diagnosis converges with that of a cow without RFM (Figure 2). This stresses the importance-especially in compact calving grazing systems-of targeting examinations earlier in milk to those who have RFM, particularly if these cows are also later calving and do not have the same amount of time to recover before breeding commences. ...
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... The interaction implied that cows with a corpus luteum present and examined at approximately <37 DIM (model 2) and <32 DIM (model 3) had a higher likelihood of a positive diagnosis than those without a corpus luteum (Supplemental Figure S2). However, beyond approximately 32 to 37 DIM, the presence of a corpus luteum at PBE reduced the likelihood of a positive diagnosis (Supplemental Figure S2). ...
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... interaction implied that cows with a corpus luteum present and examined at approximately <37 DIM (model 2) and <32 DIM (model 3) had a higher likelihood of a positive diagnosis than those without a corpus luteum (Supplemental Figure S2). However, beyond approximately 32 to 37 DIM, the presence of a corpus luteum at PBE reduced the likelihood of a positive diagnosis (Supplemental Figure S2). Some have reported that cows with an early resumption of cyclicity (before 21 DIM) had lower odds of subclinical endometritis at 49 DIM than cows that had not resumed cyclicity by 49 DIM ( Galvão et al., 2010). ...
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The objective of this study was to quantify the efficacy of a second intrauterine cephapirin treatment administered 14 d after the initial one on subsequent reproductive performance of postpartum dairy cows affected by purulent vaginal discharge (PVD) or endometritis (ENDO). In total, 4,140 Holstein cows from 30 commercial herds were enrolled in a...
Citations
... In the present study, no association was observed between the parity and occurrence of clinical endometritis. The primiparity has been reported to be a risk factor for clinical endometritis by Kelly et al. (2020), Giuliodori et al. (2017) and Manríquez et al. (2020). In contrast, McKay et al. (2023) proved the positive relationship between the incidence of endometritis and increased parity in Scottish dairy cattle herds. ...
... In many studies, dystocia has been mentioned to be as one of the most important predisposing factors for endometritis (Giuliodori et al., 2017;Kelly et al., 2020;Zahid et al., 2024). Dystocia delays the contraction of the uterus and makes it more susceptible to infection (Osawa, 2021). ...
... According to numerous reports, there is a very strong relationship between retain fetal membranes and the occurrence of endometritis in dairy cows (Nguyen-Kien & Hanzen, 2017;Nyabinwa et al., 2021;Várhidi et al., 2024). The retention of fetal membranes keeps the cervix open, consequently pathogens enter and endometrium becomes infected (Kelly et al., 2020). In the present study, although the incidence of clinical endometritis in the cows with retain placenta in their recent parturition was 31.1% higher than in the other cows, this difference was not statistically significant. ...
Clinical endometritis is one of the most common causes of declining reproductive performance in dairy cows. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of some factors including cow’s parity, milk yield, dystocia, retained placenta, calf sex, calving season, abortion, and stillbirth on the incidence of clinical endometritis and the effect of clinical endometritis on open days in an Iranian dairy farm. Uterine health of 557 dairy cows was evaluated by rectal palpation and ultrasonography during 30-35 days after calving. The presence of mucopurulent secretions in the vagina and vulva as well as the ultrasonographic observation of echogenic secretions in the uterine lumen were considered endometritis. The effect of the mentioned factors on the incidence of clinical endometritis was then analyzed in univariate and multivariate logistic regression models. The chance of developing clinical endometritis in the low-producing cows was 27.2% higher than that of the high-producing cows (p=0.06). Other parameters had no significant effect on the incidence of endometritis. The incidence of clinical endometritis in the studied herd was 49.5%. Based on the results of this study, the low milk yield may be a risk factor for developing clinical endometritis in the studied herd's condition, while parameters of the parity, dystocia, retained placenta, calf sex, calving season, abortion, and stillbirth was not effective in the occurrence rate of endometritis. There was no association between clinical endometritis and days open in the studied herd.
... 13,14 The main risk factors for RTD can be linked to the host, the environment and the interaction between the two. Multiple cow-level risk factors have been recognised, including parity, 15,16 stillbirth, 17 twinning 15 and birth of a male calf. 17 Some of the postpartum diseases identified as contributing to the development of RTD are hypocalcaemia, 18 hyperketonaemia, 19 retained fetal membranes (RFM) 16,17 and metritis. ...
... Despite a substantial body of literature on postpartum uterine disease, few studies outline the risk factors for and reproductive outcomes of RTD diagnosed using transrectal ultrasound. 8,10,15 The primary objective of this study was to identify the risk factors for ultrasound-diagnosed endometritis (UDE). The secondary objective was to investigate the impact of UDE on subsequent reproductive performance, specifically the impact of UDE on pregnancies at 60 days after the first postpartum AI and time to pregnancy after all AIs up to 150 days in milk (DIM). ...
... Specifically, using an ultrasound scoring system with a cut-off point of more than 3 mm of intrauterine fluid in cows at 28-41 DIM, Barlund et al. 35 reported a prevalence of RTD of 10%. Kelly et al. 15 reported an 8.7% prevalence of RTD in cows with more than 2 mm of intrauterine fluid identified during a single pre-breeding reproductive tract ultrasound examination at 25-49 DIM. The lower incidence of RTD reported when using transrectal ultrasound at a later stage of lactation is thought to be due to the exclusion of animals that have self-cured or those with PVD from aetiologies other than endometritis. ...
Background:
The aim of this study was to investigate the risk factors for and the impact of ultrasound-diagnosed endometritis (UDE) on lactating dairy cows' reproductive performance.
Methods:
Data were analysed from 1123 Holstein and Holstein-Friesian cows from two Scottish dairy farms. A reproductive ultrasound examination was conducted on two occasions, at 43 ± 3 and 50 ± 3 days in milk (DIM), to screen for hyperechoic fluid in the uterus. Statistical analyses were performed using multivariable logistic regression modelling and Cox proportional hazards models.
Results:
The overall incidence of UDE was 8.8% (99/1123). Risk factors for UDE included calving during autumn/winter seasons, increased parity and the presence of two or more diseases in the first 50 ± 3 days postpartum. The presence of UDE was associated with a reduced odds of pregnancy after all artificial inseminations up to 150 DIM.
Limitations:
The retrospective design of this study led to some inherent limitations with the quality and quantity of data collected.
Conclusions:
The findings of this study indicate which risk factors should be monitored in postpartum dairy cows to limit the impact of UDE on future reproductive performance.
... The factor with the highest impact on fertility was the RFM, reducing the conception rate at first service by almost 14 percentage points. It has previously been reported that RFM is a risk factor for developing endometritis, and both negatively impact 1SCR (Potter et al., 2010; Montiel-Olguin et al., 2019; Kelly et al., 2020). The significant interaction of parity and RFM highlights the importance of this pathology in multiparous cows that present lower 1SCR. ...
... Transrectal uterine ultrasonographic evaluation can distinguish the diameter of the uterine content (0 to ≤2 cm, >2 to ≤5 cm or >5 cm) and its echogenicity (anechoic, mixed echogenicity or hyperechoic). In this regard, field studies demonstrated that the presence of fluid (>2 cm with mixed echogenicity or worse) in the uterine lumen between 4 and 6 weeks postpartum has a significant effect on the reduction in the relative pregnancy rate in comparison with cows that appeared 'clean' at examination (Kelly et al., 2020;Šavc et al., 2016). The measurement of the endometrial thickness as indicative of endometritis has also been proposed (Barlund et al., 2008). ...
... Risk factors for PVD are those associated with trauma (e.g. dystocia, twins and retained placenta) that favour excessive bacterial growth and infection (Dubuc et al., 2010b;Kelly et al., 2020). Although there may be unique risk factors for PVD and SCE, the best way to control their incidence is by adopting general managerial practices such as adequate body condition score before calving (between 3 and 3.5 on the scale from 1 to 5), hygiene in the calving and fresh cow pens, ad libitum access to fresh feed (timely delivered), provide space for lying, minimize social stress (overstocking and constant pen moving), provide heat abatement (adequate air circulation and water sprinklers), and monitor and control drastic BCS changes (LeBlanc et al., 2011;Pascottini et al., 2017;Sheldon et al., 2020). ...
Endometritis is a leading cause of sub- and infertility in domestic animal species. The healthy uterus is colonized by commensal bacteria, viruses, and yeast/fungi that represent the non-pathogenic microbiota. A shift in the number or type of organisms accompanied by immune dysfunction, however, may trigger uterine infection and inflammation. Metritis is associated with inflammation of all uterine layers (endometrium, myometrium, and perimetrium) whereas endometritis is a more superficial inflammation involving solely the endometrium. Endometritis generally occurs at two time points in domestic animal species, post-partum and post-mating. Post-partum endometritis may chronically persist, either as a low-grade disease that often manifests as a vaginal discharge but not a systemic illness (in some species termed clinical endometritis) or sometimes subclinical where features are only detected by endometrial sampling. Contamination of the uterus at the time of mating occurs by direct deposition of semen (ejaculated or artificially inseminated) into the uterus. Improper drainage of the ejaculatory fluid or an inadequate immune response may result in persistent mating-induced endometritis. Both post-partum and post-mating endometritis interferes with fertility by creating a suboptimal environment for embryo development and placentation and chronic endometritis may have an impact on sperm survival and fertilisation ability. In the post-partum animal, there may also be changes in milk production and maternal behaviour which can affect offspring health and survival. Preventive strategies for endometritis largely depend on monitoring their known risk factors, which are sometimes specific with regard to the species. Effective, non-antibiotic therapy for endometritis is not available to date. Overall, extensive research has been performed in cattle and horses to unravel key aspects of endometritis, but in sows and bitches, the available literature is scant. Thus, the need and opportunity to investigate the condition vary considerably among domestic species and necessitate their comparative assessment. This article reviews general and comparative aspects of the diagnosis and classification, pathogenesis, preventive strategies, and therapeutics of endometritis in domestic species with a specific focus on cows, mares, sows, and bitches.
... On the other hand, lower BCS and the presence of echogenic material inside the lumen were associated with a higher likelihood of a positive uterine culture (p < 0.05), while ovarian cyclicity and age group of animals were not associated with that endpoint (p > 0.05; Table 3 and Figure 3). In agreement with this observation in camels, studies on other large animals have showed that underlying inadequate nutrition lowering BCS can facilitate entry and colonization of the uterus by microorganisms through altering normal anatomical structures that act as physical barriers to contamination [40,41] or triggering suppressed immune functions required to maintain the microbial hemostasis of uterus through negative energy and protein balance [42,43]. A consistently echogenic line in longitudinal section of the uterus might represent the presence of pus, which has been proposed to characterize clinical endometritis at 21 days postpartum onwards without related discharge in the vagina of dairy cows [39]. ...
The objectives of this study were to comparatively identify the common bacterial isolates from the uteri of camels coming from different reproductive backgrounds after standardizing the sampling method and to investigate the association of clinically measurable parameters with uterine colonization by these isolates. The uterine samples from 856 dromedary camels yielded a total of 17 different bacterial species with a higher proportion of sub-fertile camel uteri being colonized by bacteria (66.6%) as compared to nulliparous, recently calved, and those with unknown reproductive history combined (44.2%; p < 0.05). Camels with body condition scoring < 3 and those with a consistently echogenic appearance of the uterine lumen by sonography were more likely to be positive on uterine culture, while the presence of pus in uterine discharge was not associated with the odds of bacterial isolation (p > 0.05). While certain strains were more likely to be obtained from the uteri of the sub-fertile group (p < 0.05), embryo transfer to camels with a positive uterine culture in the absence of other gross reproductive pathologies did not necessarily affect the overall pregnancy rate compared to recipients with a negative uterine culture (p > 0.05). In conclusion, a relatively high bacterial load can be identified from the uteri of both sub-fertile and normal dromedary camels, with a higher frequency among the former. The uterine ultrasonography and evaluation of the body condition score can help in identifying the camels in which uterus is contaminated by bacteria.
... of cows with the absence of intrauterine echogenic fluid; in contrast, intrauterine echogenic fluid was detected in 15.3%-42.8% of cows with the absence of vaginal discharge containing pus between 3 and 6 weeks postpartum (Kusaka et al., 2020). Similar disagreements were observed in the present study, as well as in previous studies (Šavc et al., 2016;Kelly et al., 2020). As our previous study indicated (Kusaka et al., 2020), these results may lead to confusion in veterinarians attempting to evaluate the uterine health status of cows under field conditions. ...
Background
: Postpartum endometritis can cause subfertility in cows and reduce the reproductive performance of dairy herds. Thus, there is a critical need to improve the accuracy of the diagnosis of this disease, particularly in dairy cows.
Objectives
: This study confirmed the effects of the combined use of two non‐laboratory methods: Metricheck device (MT) and ultrasonography (UT) to detect signs of endometritis and therefore predict the likelihood of pregnancy.
Methods
: The reproductive tract of 67 lactating Holstein cows (25 primiparous and 42 multiparous) was observed at 4 and 6 weeks postpartum using the MT and UT. The cows with flecks and more purulent material in the vaginal discharge were defined as MT‐positive, and the cows with uterine echogenic contents were defined as UT‐positive. The combined definition was also used; both the UT and MT results or either the UT or MT result had to be positive for the final decision to be positive. The true‐negative cows were determined as both MT‐UT‐negative.
Results and discussion
When comparing the diagnostic results obtained by MT and UT, 37.3% and 32.8% of the total cows showed conflicting results at 4 and 6 weeks postpartum. The proportion of non‐pregnant cows until 200 days postpartum was significantly greater in both MT‐UT‐positive cows than in the true negative cows. The hazard ratios of pregnancy rate were 0.37 for both MT‐UT‐positives relative to the true negatives at 4 weeks postpartum. Similar significant differences were not detected using the MT or UT alone. These results indicate that a more severe effect on the chance of pregnancy could be detected in cows that are both MT‐UT‐positive compared with those positive for MT or UT alone.
Conclusions
: The combined use of MT and UT could support veterinary practitioners in diagnosing endometritis, potentially improving the accuracy of predicting subsequent reproductive performance.
... The retrospective data set used was the same as that used in Kelly et al. (2020), where risk factors for RTD were assessed. It comprised the results of 5,049 PBE from 2,460 spring-calving cows in 8 commercial seasonal dairy herds that were conducted each spring over a 5-yr period (2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018). ...
... When the data set examined only PBE based on a DIM range of 25 to 45 DIM, the median Se estimate for UE scoring increased to 87% (95% BPI: 61-100%), whereas when only PBE based on 46 to 86 DIM were examined, the Se estimate decreased to 36% (95% BPI: 7-71%). This may not be as unambiguous a finding as it first seems because it is well documented that as DIM increases, the probability of detecting RTD decreases (Gautam et al., 2010;Giuliodori et al., 2017;Kelly et al., 2020). This decrease in detection is largely assumed to be due to apparent self-cure (Dubuc et al., 2010;Giuliodori et al., 2017) or the shift from clinical to subclinical state (Kelly et al., 2020), which could be more difficult to detect with the cow-side diagnostic tests examined in the present study. ...
... This may not be as unambiguous a finding as it first seems because it is well documented that as DIM increases, the probability of detecting RTD decreases (Gautam et al., 2010;Giuliodori et al., 2017;Kelly et al., 2020). This decrease in detection is largely assumed to be due to apparent self-cure (Dubuc et al., 2010;Giuliodori et al., 2017) or the shift from clinical to subclinical state (Kelly et al., 2020), which could be more difficult to detect with the cow-side diagnostic tests examined in the present study. In year-round calving dairy herds, the PBE typically happens before the end of the voluntary waiting period within a tight range of DIM based on the individual cow. ...
The detection of reproductive tract disease (RTD) 3 wk postpartum is important because of its effect on subsequent reproductive outcomes. Numerous methods for the diagnosis of RTD are described, some of which are more practical and instantaneous in terms of diagnosis. Two of these methods involve identification of purulent vaginal discharge (PVD) and evidence of ultrasonographic uterine changes indicative of endometritis (UE). The objectives of our retrospective observational study were (1) to assess the association of PVD or UE score at the prebreeding examination (PBE) with the hazard of pregnancy within the subsequent breeding season; (2) to determine the test sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) at the point of sampling of both tests using a Bayesian latent class model; and (3) to determine the effect of varying positivity thresholds on test accuracy. To achieve these objectives, we analyzed an initial data set of 5,049 PBE from 2,460 spring-calved cows in 8 herds between 2014 and 2018. Each PBE was conducted once between 25 and 86 d in milk. At each PBE, vaginal discharge was obtained with a Metricheck device (Simcro) whereas uterine contents were assessed using transrectal ultrasonography. Purulent vaginal discharge was scored on a scale of 0 to 3 depending on discharge character, and UE was scored on a scale of 0 to 4 depending on the presence and consistency of intraluminal fluid. Cows with scores of ≥2 in either test had received treatment. Fertility data were available from 4,756 PBE after data exclusion. The association between PVD or UE score at the PBE and subsequent hazard of pregnancy was analyzed using a Cox proportional hazards model. Cows with a PVD score of 2 or 3 were less likely to conceive than cows with a PVD score 0 [score 2 hazard ratio (HR) = 0.74; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.59–0.94; score 3 HR = 0.65; 95% CI: 0.51–0.84]. Cows with a UE score of 1, 2, 3, or 4 were less likely to conceive than cows with a UE score of 0 (score 1 HR = 0.82; 95% CI: 0.73–0.93; score 2 HR = 0.79; 95% CI: 0.62–1.00; score 3 HR = 0.43; 95% CI: 0.43–0.90; score 4 HR = 0.39; 95% CI: 0.26–0.58). To determine the Se and Sp of PVD or UE score for diagnosis of RTD at the time of PBE, a Bayesian latent class model was fitted on 2,460 individual cow PBE. Flat priors were used for the Se and Sp of UE, whereas informative priors were used for PVD Se (mode = 65%, 5th percentile = 45%) and Sp (mode = 90%, 5th percentile = 80%) and RTD prevalence (mode = 20%, 5th percentile = 10%). Posterior estimates (median and 95% Bayesian probability intervals; BPI) were obtained using ‘rjags' (R Studio). The optimal test thresholds (PVD and UE score ≥1) were selected by assessing the effect of different thresholds on test estimates and using a misclassification cost analysis. Based on these, median (95% BPI) Se for PVD and UE score ≥1 were 44% (29–60%) and 67% (33–100%), respectively. Median Sp for PVD and UE score ≥1 were 90% (86–93%) and 91% (86–93%), respectively. Higher scores in both tests were associated with impaired fertility, and UE scoring with a threshold of ≥1 had the highest test Se and Sp estimates although test Se was conditional on days in milk when the PBE occurred.
... Endometritis is a prevalent postpartum uterine disease of economic importance in dairy cows. The disease may manifest as clinical endometritis (CLE) and/or subclinical endometritis (SCLE) between period 21 st and 90 th days postpartum (dpp) (Nyabinwa et al., 2020a;Kelly et al., 2020). Both CLE and SCLE are related causes of infertility and subfertility in dairy cows, not only during the present infections but also after resolution of clinical signs of the disease (Plontzke et al., 2010). ...
Endometritis in smallholder zero-grazed dairy cows in Rwanda: risks and consequences on cow fertility performance
... Animals that were not ill but that had an enlarged uterus and purulent uterine discharge (which did not need to be fetid) detectable in the vagina within 21 DPP were classified as having MET (Sheldon et al., 2006). Clinical endometritis was defined by the presence of mucopurulent (≥50% pus) vaginal discharge after 21 DPP based on vaginoscopy (Sheldon et al., 2008) and confirmation of the uterine origin of the vaginal discharge by ultrasonographic examination ( Figure 2) and a uterine tract score ≥2 (volume >0.2 cm of fluid of echogenicity gray to white with or without hyperechoic particles in a spoke-wheel shaped lumen or circular-shaped lumen with the center enlarged or stellate; Kelly et al., 2020). Cytological endometritis was defined by endometrial cytological examination with a cutoff threshold of more than 5% PMN in the absence of PVD based on vaginoscopy and confirmed by ultrasonographic examination (Figure 2) with a uterine tract score of 0 to 1 (no fluid and a spoke-wheel shaped lumen completely involuted with infoldings of the endometrium or a volume ≤0.2 cm of intraluminal fluid in a spoke-wheel shaped lumen; Wagener et al., 2017;Kelly et al., 2020). ...
... Clinical endometritis was defined by the presence of mucopurulent (≥50% pus) vaginal discharge after 21 DPP based on vaginoscopy (Sheldon et al., 2008) and confirmation of the uterine origin of the vaginal discharge by ultrasonographic examination ( Figure 2) and a uterine tract score ≥2 (volume >0.2 cm of fluid of echogenicity gray to white with or without hyperechoic particles in a spoke-wheel shaped lumen or circular-shaped lumen with the center enlarged or stellate; Kelly et al., 2020). Cytological endometritis was defined by endometrial cytological examination with a cutoff threshold of more than 5% PMN in the absence of PVD based on vaginoscopy and confirmed by ultrasonographic examination (Figure 2) with a uterine tract score of 0 to 1 (no fluid and a spoke-wheel shaped lumen completely involuted with infoldings of the endometrium or a volume ≤0.2 cm of intraluminal fluid in a spoke-wheel shaped lumen; Wagener et al., 2017;Kelly et al., 2020). ...
The cow's uterus sustains bacterial contamination and active inflammation after calving as part of the normal physiological process of uterine involution. Although the definition, incidence, and risk factors for postpartum uterine diseases (PUD) have been documented in annual calving systems with high-producing cows on total mixed ration, the literature contains little information for other production systems. The objective of this study was to quantify the incidence risk and factors associated with metritis, clinical endometritis, and cytological endometritis in high-altitude tropical dairy herds in a pasture-based system. A total of 248 cows from 5 commercial dairy herds in northern Antioquia, Colombia, were enrolled in this prospective observational longitudinal cohort study. Data collection and PUD diagnosis were performed at d 0, 3, 10, 17, 24, 31, 38, 45, and 52 (±1) after parturition. Between 60 and 70 d, cows were systematically enrolled in a synchronization protocol, and herds were visited monthly for pregnancy diagnosis until 180 ±15 d. The multivariable logistic regression model of variables associated with PUD occurrence included (a) parity, season of calving, transition diet, and body condition score at calving; (b) blood calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium concentrations, and milk urea nitrogen, β-hydroxybutyrate and fat-to-protein ratio; and (c) dystocia, retained placenta, and delayed uterine involution. The incidences of puerperal metritis, clinical metritis (MET), clinical endometritis (CE), and cytological endometritis (CYTO) were 2.8, 25, 29, and 26%, respectively. Retained placenta and dystocia were associated with MET, and MET was associated with CE. Low blood calcium concentration at calving was associated with CYTO. Overall, 51.2% of the cows suffered at least 1 category of PUD during the first 60 d postpartum (DPP). However, cows also suffered from different consecutive clinical events of PUD (MET, CE, and CYTO) during the follow-up period (0 to 180 ±15 DPP). These events could be grouped into 4 types (which were referred to as “clinical patterns”) based on interactions between MET, CE, and CYTO.
... The cows positive for endometritis had longer days-not pregnant, prolonged calving intervals, low conception rate at first service, high cost of medication, drop in milk production, and reduced calf crop, resulting in reduced profitability of the dairy herd [1,3,4] . Globally, the prevalence of endometritis vary between 3.6 to 69.8% for CLE [5,6] , and between 6.7 to 89.0% for SCLE [7,8] . In Rwanda, 92.0% of herds are managed under the smallholder zero-grazing system. ...
... Previous studies have shown the risk factors such as retained placenta, body condition score, season of calving, cow breed, and parity that are associated with poor reproductive performance and reduced milk yield [12,13,14,15] . These risks were also considered as a potential for endometritis occurrence [8,16,17] . Analyzing concurrently the effect of these variables and endometritis on production and reproductive performance could give the insights on which one has the greatest association with reduced milk yield and/or suboptimal fertility performance of dairy cows. ...
... The association between mastitis, bedding materials, mud floors, rainy season, dirty cowshed, and endometritis case are, to a large part consequence of farmer's herd management practices due to knowledge gaps found in the sample farms, which implies how farmers may manage the disease in the herds [2] . They are likely to engage in some high-risk practices such not using bedding materials in the cowshed, cows are crowded together in dirty conditions, and hence the environmental pathogens tend to be concentrated and can ascend female genital tract and endometritis as a result [8] . In the present study systems, there was variation in hygienic standards of dairy environment and milk conditions as the cows were frequently kept in dirty and wet areas, which favours the proliferation and transmission of endometritis-causing organisms [25,26] . ...
Suboptimal milk production and reproductive performance manifest in postpartum dairy cows likely reflect associations with the characteristics of the dairy herd management conditions and endometritis infection. The hypothesis was that endometritis, cow-and herd-levels variables, and the combination of all these variables are associated with suboptimal milk yield and reproductive performance of postpartum zero-grazed dairy cows managed on smallholder farms. This research was conducted in Gasabo district, Rwanda, to the smallholder dairy farmers from September 2018 to August 2019. The survey was used to collect the data from 370 farms on 466 cows, sampled by snowball technique. Regression models and the general linear model were used in the analysis. The results showed that in a decreasing magnitude, the milk yield was predicted by cow breed [regression coefficient (β): −2.6, p< 0.001], endometritis infection (β = −1.1, p< 0.001), poor body condition (β = −1.0, p< 0.05), and mastitis positive case (β = −0.8, p< 0.05). For reproductive performance, an increase of one case of anoestrous postpartum and one endometritis positive case was associated with a delay of 64 and 21 days to days-not pregnant, respectively (p< 0.001). Anoestrus postpartum case was more likely to increase by 1.3% if endometritis case increases by 1.0% (p< 0.001). These results reveal the important predictor variables of endometritis, reduced milk yield, and suboptimal fertility performance in postpartum dairy cows. This should inform the basis of management interventions for improved milk production and reproductive performance towards smallholder dairy herd profitability and sustainability.
