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High-level overview of the ISRU process chain. Regolith feedstock is excavated, 104 characterised, and then delivered to a beneficiation step (e.g. particle size separation, removal of 105 certain features), during which waste products have to be removed. The improved feedstock is then 106 handled and characterised again, before being processed by the ISRU application. The product of the 107 ISRU process (for example, oxygen, water, or 3D printed parts) has to be handled and should be 108 characterised a final time. During final processing waste products have to be removed. Lastly, the end 109 product has to be stored or transferred to the user. 110
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A high-level overview of current research in the area of lunar regolith excavation and handling for In Situ Resource Utilisation (ISRU) is presented. Thirteen processes are grouped into discrete and continuous excavators. A further differentiation is made between systems with and without connection to a mobility platform – referred to as complete a...
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Context 1
... term beneficiation is adapted from the 91 mining industry and refers to any process that improves the quality of a product. 92 Figure 2 shows a high-level ISRU process chain from feedstock to finished product. Beneficiation 93 processes that might be necessary include for instance size separation or comminution, rejection of 94 agglutinates, or a particular mineral separation, in order to provide an improved feedstock to the next 95 step in the process. ...
Context 2
... being the first step in the ISRU product chain ( Figure 2) and the foundation of any attempt to 112 utilise lunar regolith resources effectively, relatively little research is carried out in the area of regolith 113 excavation and almost no mature design concepts are found (Technology Readiness Level (TRL) < 4); 114 current research mainly focuses on processing techniques. This lack of refined concepts is also 115 symptomatic of the fact that none of the processing techniques are technologically advanced enough 116 yet to produce a defined set of requirements for the feedstock. ...
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Citations
... Of these oxide components, iron oxides are more easily reduced to liberate the oxygen (SI Appendix ). Regolith has been created by over 4.5 billion years of asteroid impacts, solar wind, and radiation ( 24 ). The regolith contains a fraction of agglutinates, created from the joining of preexisting grains by impact glass formed by meteorite collisions. ...
Spacecraft using combustion engines require substantial amounts of oxygen for their propellant. The Moon could be a source of oxygen for rocket propellant, since the material composing the lunar surface can be processed to extract oxygen. However, little is known about overall energy requirements of the processes described in the literature for oxygen extraction from lunar regolith. This knowledge gap constrains the planning of lunar missions, since the scale of energy infrastructure required for oxygen production facilities is not well characterized. This study presents an energy consumption model for oxygen production via hydrogen reduction of the mineral ilmenite (FeTiO 3 ). We consider an end-to-end production chain starting from dry regolith as the feedstock. The production includes the following process steps: excavation, transportation, beneficiation, hydrogen reduction, water electrolysis, liquefaction, and zero boil-off storage. The model predicts the energy demand per kilogram oxygen produced based on adjustable parameters for each process step. As expected, the model indicates a strong dependence on feedstock composition. For regolith composed of 10 wt% ilmenite, the model predicts that a total of 24.3 (± 5.8) kWh is needed per kg of liquid oxygen produced. This study confirms that the hydrogen reduction and electrolysis steps have the highest energy requirements in the production chain. Sensitivity analysis reveals that the enrichment factor of the beneficiation process is the most critical parameter for optimizing energy utilization. Overall, this study provides a parameterized end-to-end model of energy consumption that can serve as a foundation for various production systems on the Moon.
... In the context of In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) projects, efficient regolith sampling is crucial for planetary exploration and resource extraction missions [1]. Regolith sampling devices (RSDs) are tasked with collecting soil or other granular material from planetary surfaces [2,3], but the ability to accurately estimate the collected mass in situ remains a technical challenge. Accurate in situ mass estimation is essential for optimizing material collection efficiency in ISRU missions and ensuring that sufficient samples are collected for scientific analyses. ...
This paper presents the design, implementation, and laboratory validation of an optoelectronic-based mass estimation sensor for regolith sampling devices. The sensor integrates multiple photoresistors into the walls of a shovel of a sampling device, where the sensors detect varying levels of light occlusion caused by the deposited regolith. By analyzing the output signals from these photoresistors, the sensor estimates the mass of the sampled regolith. The device is designed to handle a typical sample mass range of 100–300 g. Laboratory tests demonstrated that the sensor can estimate the regolith mass with a relative error of approximately 23%, which is suitable for early-stage applications where rapid, non-invasive mass estimation is essential. The shown level of accuracy underscores the potential for further refining the calibration process, enhancing sensor sensitivity, and integrating multi-sensor approaches to improve performance. This conceptual study highlights the feasibility of using optoelectronic sensors for regolith mass estimation, paving the way for future innovations in ISRU missions and other granular material sampling applications. Future work will focus on the optimization of photoresistor placements, refining the calibration process, and enhancing sensor sensitivity to improve the accuracy of mass estimation.
... Two strategies were tested: (1) a 100:0 ratio without DoL, where six haulers delivered ore directly to the processing plant, and (2) a 50:50 ratio with DoL, where four haulers transported ore to a central hub, and two transporters completed the delivery. The energy consumption trends were derived from assumptions based on NASA's RASSOR 2.0 bucket-drum excavator [19] and a parametric review by Just et al. (2020) [82]. Key estimates included 320 W for excavating an 80 kg ore block [14,83,84], 90 W for fully loaded haulage per minute [84,85], 10 W for unloaded haulage per minute, and 5 W for mineral detection. ...
... Two strategies were tested: (1) a 100:0 ratio without DoL, where six haulers delivered ore directly to the processing plant, and (2) a 50:50 ratio with DoL, where four haulers transported ore to a central hub, and two transporters completed the delivery. The energy consumption trends were derived from assumptions based on NASA's RASSOR 2.0 bucket-drum excavator [19] and a parametric review by Just et al. (2020) [82]. Key estimates included 320 W for excavating an 80 kg ore block [14,83,84], 90 W for fully loaded haulage per minute [84,85], 10 W for unloaded haulage per minute, and 5 W for mineral detection. ...
... (2020) [82]. Key estimates included 320 W for excavating an 80 kg ore block [14,83,84], 90 W for fully loaded haulage per minute [84,85], 10 W for unloaded haulage per minute, and 5 W for mineral detection. ...
The Lunarminer framework explores the use of biomimetic swarm robotics, inspired by the division of labor in leafcutter ants and the synchronized flashing of fireflies, to enhance lunar water ice extraction. Simulations of water ice extraction within Shackleton Crater showed that the framework may improve task allocation, by reducing the extraction time by up to 40% and energy consumption by 31% in scenarios with high ore block quantities. This system, capable of producing up to 181 L of water per day from excavated regolith with a conversion efficiency of 0.8, may allow for supporting up to eighteen crew members. It has demonstrated robust fault tolerance and sustained operational efficiency, even for a 20% robot failure rate. The framework may help to address key challenges in lunar resource extraction, particularly in the permanently shadowed regions. To refine the proposed strategies, it is recommended that further studies be conducted on their large-scale applications in space mining operations at the Extraterrestrial Environmental Simulation (EXTERRES) laboratory at the University of Adelaide.
... Уже відомі геологічні обґрунтування можливих видів корисних копалин, а також оцінені потужності їхніх покладів і географічні особливості розташування родовищ на поверхні єдиного природного супутника нашої планети [7,8]. Ряд наукових колективів розробляють проєкти місячних поселень, автоматизованих і пристосованих до тривалого проживання людини [9,10]. На черзі стоять питання розроблення й обґрунтування можливих технологічних рішень щодо видобування та транспортування корисних копалин як в умовах Місяця, від місця видобування до місця перероблення та відправлення на Землю, так і таких, що гарантуватимуть безпечну та надійну доставку на Землю. ...
... For excavation, a Backhoe loader was selected because of its low mass, low complexity, and power requirements, ideal for a short-term operation on the Moon [4]. For transportation, aspects such as distance, regolith flowability, and dust mitigation are considered for system selection. ...
... For the number, mass, and power of the excavation system, it considers the excavation rate (100 kg/h) and traverse speed loaded and unloaded (8 m/min and 12 m/min) [4]. In addition, it fixes the discharge rate at 800 kg/h and the transfer point distance at 10 meters. ...
... On the other hand, every hour, 17 minutes are spent only on loading, unloading tasks, and traveling to the transfer point, so the excavator only digs actual material during 43 minutes per hour, resulting in a final excavation rate value of 135 kg/hour that can be met by one excavator with a backhoe loader of 150 kg/hour. The trench area needs to be calculated based on the throughput, regolith bulk density at different depths (1.4 -1.8), and bucket cut capacity (up to 5 cm) [4]. Considering small slices of 5 cm depth, the trench is 3,437 m 2 (surface) and 2,871 m 2 (bottom). ...
Solar panels are required on the Moon to provide power for human activities, especially mining and civil operations. To provide enough power and maintain human settlements working, a technical solution known as the Tall Lunar Tower (TLT) claims to be able to capture sunlight 93% of the time through solar panel structures and provide 50 kW per tower. A typical photovoltaic panel is made of 76% glass, 10% polymer, 8% aluminum, 5% silicon, and 1% other metals. Delivering these materials from Earth is expensive and risky. Fortunately, lunar regolith contains large amounts of silicon and aluminum oxides and silicates, thus, it would be feasible to use the resources in situ for metal production, hence, we just need to transport polymers, wire, and minor components from Earth. This article presents an ISRU (in-situ resource utilization) architecture to provide plagioclase concentrate, the economic lunar ore for aluminum and silicon extraction. The document details engineering aspects and technological solutions for lunar mining, including excavation, transport, and beneficiation operations; based on a hypothetical construction and deployment of TLT at the South Pole. Processing techniques such as screening and magnetic separation are discussed to evaluate their advantages and drawbacks to obtain an expected plagioclase concentration of 70% grade with 18% recovery. Finally, an outline of recommendations for industrial manufacture is discussed, considering the sequential lunar metals extraction and the quality required.
... Additionally, in situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) is required to maintain a large operation on the lunar surface. Technologies required for ISRU include but are not limited to molten regolith electrolysis (Sibille et al., 2010), regolith beneficiation (Rasera et al., 2020), and regolith structures such as berms, roads, and landing pads (Just et al., 2020). To successfully test these technologies on Earth before applying them on the Moon, large amounts of testing material are required. ...
... Readers interested in the physical properties of the lunar regolith are referred to the excellent reviews by Carrier et al. (1991), McKay et al. (1991), and Lucey et al. (2006). A helpful recent review of potential regolith excavation techniques has been provided by Just et al. (2020). Potential applications of bulk regolith include: radiation shielding (a thickness of several meters will shield from all solar particle events and most galactic cosmic rays), micrometeorite shielding, and thermal insulation. ...
... The extreme lunar environment, and the processes that have acted on the regolith during its formation and subsequent exposure, give it unique compositional and mechanical properties. Understanding these properties will be essential in identifying potential uses for the lunar regolith, as well as for the safe transportation and handling of this material (e.g., Walton 2012;Just et al. 2020). ...
... ISRU activities are increasing, both in space agencies and in the international science and industrial community. There are at least three group of activities: (i) prospecting space bodies during space missions; (ii) technological investigations related to surface infrastructure and operations (Just et al., 2020;Zhang et al., 2023); and (iii) conceptual analyses of future mining activities. 35 This paper belongs to the third group and brings a new insight into the definition of an open pit mine operating on the Moon's surface. ...
In situ resource utilization (ISRU) activities are receiving increasing attention, both from space agencies and among the international science and industrial community. Prominent examples of ongoing ISRU space programs are the NASA Artemis program and the Terrae Novae program run by the European Space Agency. In technical sciences, there are at least three groups of activities related to ISRU: prospecting bodies in the context of space missions, technological investigations related to surface infrastructure and operations, and conceptual analyses of future mining activities. The present paper belongs to the third group and brings new insights into a potential open pit mine operating on the Moon. There are several novel contributions: the definition of the objectives of the mine, based on economic indicators; a conceptual description of a pit architecture dedicated to excavating ilmenite-rich feedstock; and a qualitative and quantitative description of the chosen processes and the mine’s topology. In the paper, there are also added links to other papers connected with ISRU activities.
... Discrete excavators are characterized by the need to break contact with the soil in between cuts to clear the cutting surface or to dump the excavated material (a single large bite). Systems where multiple cutting surfaces are continually in contact with the soil and multiple cuts are possible can be referred to as continuous excavators (Just et al., 2020). Discrete excavators (e.g., PACKMOON) could be applied for excavating smaller amounts of regolith in the initial phase of building lunar habitat. ...
A concept of magnetic separation of regolith for production of lunar aggregate is presented in the paper. Future construction effort on the Moon will require significant amounts of concrete-like composites. The authors formulate a hypothesis that magnetic separation of regolith would be a very efficient beneficiation procedure solving multiple civil engineering problems associated with properties of raw lunar soil. For the research program, 10 lunar soil simulants were used. The magnetic separation was feasible in majority of cases. Acquired lunar aggregate would be useful for both concrete-like composite production and covering the surface of a habitat. The aims of future research are pointed out in the paper.
... The development of space technologies is generally very costly and time-consuming because standard design approaches used in terrestrial applications are not fully applicable to extraterrestrial scenarios. It has been observed that while pressure, radiation, and temperature conditions existing in space are relatively simple to reproduce on Earth, low-gravity conditions are very difficult to recreate (Wilkinson and DeGennaro, 2007;Just et al., 2020). On the other hand, the reduced gravity of celestial bodies such as Mars and Moon would surely affect the in situ excavation process due to the peculiar interaction between soil particles and machine elements. ...
The discrete element method (DEM) is a numerical technique used in many areas of modern science to describe the behavior of bulk materials. Terramechanics of planetary soil analogs for in situ resource utilization activities is a research field where the use of DEM appears to be beneficial. Indeed, the close-to-physics modeling approach of DEM allows the researcher to gain much insight into the mechanical behavior of the regolith when it interacts with external devices in conditions that are hard to test experimentally. Nevertheless, DEM models are very difficult to calibrate due to their high complexity. In this paper, we study the influence of fundamental model parameters on specific simulation outcomes. We provide qualitative and quantitative assessments of the influence of DEM model parameters on the simulated repose angle and computational time. These results help to understand the behavior of the numerical model and are useful in the model calibration process.
