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Unlike prospective participants with desire for initial participation, current participants are likely to have different interest in habitual leisure engagement from participation itself. Accordingly, they may respond to the effects of leisure constraints differently in order to progress toward a higher level of leisure involvement. This study aims...
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... as a surrogate for motivations, study findings indicate that negotiation strategies act as intermediate variables between those two exogenous variables of constraints and commitment. That is, negotiation strategies, which are triggered by a change in the levels of commitment and constraints, are likely to adjust the extent to which recreationists indicate their willingness to participate more frequently. This study also shed some light on the function of commitment in recreationists’ leisure decision-making process. Dissimilar to previous studies focusing on motivations known to be stimuli for initial participation, we made use of commitment as an alternative antecedent variable. The concept of commitment is beneficial in the framework used in that it represents recreationists’ behavioral continuance characterized by firmly rejecting alternative activities and their personal dedication to an activity expressed by willingly spending money, time, and energy (Shamir, 1988). The significant positive effects of commitment on the two dimensions of negotiation strategies and behavioral intentions provided strong evidence that the concept accurately characterizes recreationists’ disposition to habitual leisure pursuits. In this regard, Stebbins (1992) emphasized commitment as the core element of serious leisure mechanism, which is defined as “the systematic pursuit of an . . . activity that is sufficiently substantial and interesting for the participant to find a career there in the acquisition and expression of its special skills and knowledge” (p. 3). Accordingly, recreationists’ behavioral continuance over time and personal dedication to their favorite activity can be effectively viewed within the boundary of commitment (Buchanan, 1985). Study results also disclosed that the three elements of leisure constraints were differently associated with cognitive negotiation strategies. The positive coefficient signs between the construct of structural constraints and the two types of negotiation strategies corresponded with the research hypotheses. However, the signs of the two path coefficients linking personal and interactional constraints to cognitive negotiation strategies were op- posite to prior expectations. These unexpected negative signs imply that recreationists are less likely to exert various cognitive negotiation efforts to participate more often as they encounter higher levels of personal and interactional constraints. The majority of previous studies (e.g., Hubbard & Mannell, 2001; Lee & Scott, 2009; White, 2008) reported a positive relationship between constraints and negotiation strategies. Besides this study, Jun and Kyle (2011) recently revealed a negative linkage from recreational golfers’ perception of constraints to negotiation efforts. They noted that the insertion of new exogenous variables (i.e., identity conflict and facilitation) along with the utilization of an alternative dimensional approach to leisure constraints other than the tripartite approach may contribute to the negative connection. Their argument may be consistent with the unexpected relationship this study found. The hierarchical model of leisure constraints, proposed by Crawford, Jackson, and Godbey (1991), further provides a better explanation for this finding, which illustrates how individuals deal with diverse leisure constraints to initiate participation and develop stronger leisure involvement (refer to Figure 1). According to the model employing a typical tripartite approach of leisure constraints, individuals first face and negotiate constraints for initial participation. Then, even after the initial engagement, they are continually influenced by a set of factors that impede more frequent participation. Dissimilar to the first phase of the model demonstrating how prospective participants begin their leisure engagement, the second phase indicates that recreationists cope with leisure constraints in a different way. It is reasoned that prior experiences of managing several constraints may allow recreationists to differently react from the first stage for initiating participation. Our study findings indicated that recreationists who already negotiated constraints to initial fishing participation are less likely to use diverse cognitive negotiation strategies when they perceive greater impacts of particular constraints (i.e., personal and ...
Context 2
... have been popularly applied to address multifaceted relationships with other variables such as preferences and participation. Due to the strong interactions among the dimensions, nevertheless, the use of this tripartite approach raises several concerns associated with a lack of distinctiveness of the factors and low degrees of internal consistency (Godbey, Crawford, & Shen, 2010). Accordingly, follow-up studies (e.g., Gilbert & Hudson, 2000; Jun & Kyle, 2011; Wright & Goodale, 1991) have made use of different dimensions of constraints within a particular activity and setting. Stated differently, no standardized scale to measure leisure constraints has been developed yet and future research will be beneficial in this area (Hubbard & Mannell, 2001). Studies focusing on leisure constraints have been refined with the development of several conceptual models (Jackson, 2005a). Among those models, the hierarchical model of leisure constraints (see Figure 1), proposed by Crawford, Jackson, and Godbey (1991), is noteworthy. According to the first phase of this model, prospective participants sequentially encounter a set of constraints in their decision-making process for initial leisure participation. The second phase shows the leisure participation process of recreationists and is particularly important in that this stage demonstrates how recreationists progress toward a higher level of leisure involvement, which can be expressed as recreation specialization or serious leisure (Bryan, 1977; Stebbins, 1992). Even after the initial engagement as a result of attenuating the impacts of diverse constraints, recreationists are continually affected by another set of constraints which hinder more frequent participation (Aas, 1995). While the model illustrates the hierarchical ordering of leisure constraints, previous studies (e.g., Gilbert & Hudson, 2000; Jun, Kyle, & Mowen, 2009) showed that various constraining factors interrupt individuals’ leisure pursuits in different ways at each stage. Leisure constraints usually act as critical determinants in decision to cease participation or reduce frequency of engagement in leisure activities (Fedler & Ditton, 2001; Raymore, Godbey, Crawford, & von Eye, 1993). In this regard, prior research (e.g., Hung & Petrick, 2012; Lee, Agarwal, & Kim, 2011) posited that constraints wield negative influences on behavioral intentions. Negotiation strategies are largely referred to as a series of means which individuals apply to avoid and reduce the impacts of constraints to leisure participation (Jackson, 2005a; Mannell & Kleiber, 1997). The fundamental assumption of negotiation is originated from the social cognitive theory (Maddux, 1993). This theory suggests that individuals tend to ...
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... This theory argues that when individuals encounter negative situations, they tend to change situational and environmental conditions using their past knowledge and experience rather than passively accepting it. Moreover, it assumes that recreationalists who have an intense desire to participate in an activity are more likely to use different negotiation strategies than potential participants (Lyu & Oh, 2014). Combinations of techniques including time management, skill development, interpersonal coordination, and financial resource management make up negotiation strategies (Nyaupane & Andereck, 2008) and may also include changes in leisure time. ...
... In this respect, the theme of escaping ignoring can be placed under the cognitive aggregate dimension. Behavioral strategy, on the other hand, involves seeking alternative actions related to leisure time itself, that is, exhibiting a behavior instead of ignoring or escaping, and also changing the individual's behaviors towards meeting responsibility and compulsory needs (Lyu & Oh, 2014). In this context, personal skills and environmental, social, planning, and financial themes can be placed under the behavioral aggregate dimension. ...
Purpose: The present study aimed to investigate the behaviors and preferences of university student-generation Z members towards outdoor activities based on the theory of leisure constraints. Methods: In this study, qualitative research methods and phenomenological design were adopted to reveal the behaviors and preferences of Z generation members towards recreational activities in depth. Content analysis was performed on 95 data obtained by convenience sampling. Results: The push-pull model developed was adapted as five themes in the context of recreation: social, physical, environmental, personal requirements, and spiritual regeneration-health. The strategies for coping with the constraints existing in the literature exactly overlap with the aggregate dimensions suggested in this research, and the difference in the context of outdoor recreation is based on the theme. The avoidance-ignoring theme is handled under the cognitive strategy aggregate dimension, while the behavioral strategy aggregate dimension comprises personal skills, environmental, social, planning, and financial themes. In addition, the classification of experience gained in the context of tourism as triple effects (immediate, destination, and global) has been expanded in the context of recreation by adding a new experience effect (individual-personal). Implications: The research outputs obtained through content analyses will provide concrete data for relevant literature and recreation industry stakeholders.
... While most authors agree on the negative effect of constraints on participation, some studies reveal a non-significant relationship between the two constructs (Bizen & Ninomiya, 2022;Chen et al., 2018;Cheng & Fountain, 2021;Moghimehfar & Halpenny, 2016). Lyu and Oh (2014) found, for example, that only structural constraints had a significant negative effect on participation. Xie and Ritchie (2019) suggest that these differences may arise from the characteristics of the study population, a viewpoint supported by the findings of other researchers (Chun et al., 2022). ...
... Another study conducted among people with disabilities found that only structural constraints had a positive effect on negotiation, while other constraints were non-significant (Lyu & Lee, 2016). Tellingly, Lyu and Oh (2014) found that intrapersonal and interpersonal constraints negatively affected cognitive and behavioral negotiation strategies, while structural constraints had a positive effect on them. On the other hand, some studies discovered an opposite, negative effect of constraints on negotiations (Chun et al., 2022) or a non-significant relationship between these variables (Bizen & Ninomiya, 2022). ...
This study examines tourists’ use of public transportation through the lens of hierarchical leisure constraints theory. Drawing on data collected in 10 European capitals among 5,220 tourists, it aims to provide evidence supporting the relevance of the theory in this research domain, thereby deepening our understanding of the mechanisms underlying tourists’ use of public transportation. Except for the relationship between constraints and negotiation, all hypothesized relationships were statistically significant and aligned with the underlying theory. The multi-group analysis revealed, inter alia, a significant difference between cities with a high public transportation modal split and those with a low modal split in terms of the relationship between constraints and negotiation. Our research suggests that municipal authorities should proactively advocate for and invest in public transportation infrastructure. By prioritizing these modes of transportation, they contribute to a more responsible tourism landscape, preserving the authenticity and cultural richness of destinations for future generations.
... When an individual encounters barrier for leisure activity, this does not necessarily mean they will stop participating; they can also find ways to lower the impacts by negotiating strategies such as change in timing or reduction of expenses (Lyu and Oh, 2014). These negotiations can require interpersonal communication between partners or reflection on personal routines. ...
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... According to Lyu and Oh (2014), the concept of negotiation strategies means a series of cognitive actions that individuals apply to overcome constraints. Behavioral strategies include schedule arrangements and skill development, while cognitive strategies involve balancing rewards and costs, increasing engagement, and how to deal with stress (Chen et al., 2020). ...
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... Engagement, in the early times, is considered a strong level of involvement (Lyu & Oh, 2014). However, Ramey et al. (2016) indicated that some forms of leisure participation encompass personal growth and interpersonal qualities, which is referred as psychological engagement. ...
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... The group exhibited higher LPS scores. Although using different analyses, previous studies assessing participation in leisure activities confirmed such greater involvement (Choi & Yoo, 2017;Godbey et al., 2010;Lyu & Oh, 2014;Siegenthaler & O'Dell, 2000). We infer that these individuals might have high self-efficacy, as, according to Bandura et al. (2009), acting or not acting depends on the personal belief of whether one can control his or her own functioning (physical and mental), associated with how much one believes in their capacity to control their environment. ...
... Despite extensive evidence on the positive benefits of nature recreation participation to PWDs, there remain low numbers of PWD engagement in the activity. Numerous studies within outdoor recreation and leisure fields reveal that many individuals with disabilities face challenges while accessing and participating in recreational activities due to various barriers or constraints (Lyu & Oh, 2014;Schneider & Wynveen, 2015). For example, PWDs in the United States were found to participate significantly less (30-70%) than a person without disability in almost all active recreation activities (Williams et al., 2004). ...
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... For example, water may be considered A key element of leisure constraints theory is that constraints need not prevent participation-55 some individuals are able to negotiate and overcome constraints (Godbey et al., 2010; 56 Hubbard and Mannell, 2001). It has been suggested that individuals who engage in frequent 57 recreation-whose engagement indicates surmounting constraints-may perceive constraints 58 differently to infrequent users or may have stronger motivation to support negotiating these 59 constraints (Lyu and Oh, 2014; Raedeke and Burton, 1997). This raises the question of To address this gap, we examine patterns of blue space use and characteristics of different 76 types of users, using population-level survey data from a social monitoring program in South 77 East Queensland, Australia. ...
Recreational blue space use generates important social benefits, that are supported by proximity to coastal and freshwater spaces. Yet, little research has explored different patterns of blue space use and how this is influenced by subjective perceptions about blue spaces. Here we draw on data from a representative survey of residents of South East Queensland (Australia) (N = 3128) to develop a typology of blue space use and quantify the frequency with which different types of blue spaces are used. We identified five distinct groups of blue space users: three frequent use groups, and two low use groups. Greater proximity to coastal areas which permit diverse types of activities supported all three frequent use groups, while greater distance from the coast limited low use groups. However, subjective perceptions about enablers and constraints also influenced use. For example, frequent exercisers and regular users do report constraints, but these tend to be related to place (suggesting structural constraints), and these groups also report high motivations. Non-users represented 13% of the sample, and reported low motivation, and high intrapersonal constraints such as not-belonging. Our findings suggest that behaviour patterns in and around waterways reflect both perceptions of the environment, and individual-level constraints that may transcend environmental context.
... Interpersonal restrictions arise from interpersonal interaction and include the inability to find a companion to participate in activities; Finally, structural constraints are external constraints related to the lack of necessary resources to participate in leisure activities. The three dimensions of leisure constraints, initially classified by Crawford & Godbey (1987), have been popularly applied by different researchers to address multifaceted relationships with other variables such as leisure preferences, participation, commitment, and negotiation (Crawford et al., 1991;Lyu & Oh, 2014). ...
This study aimed to examine the constraints to participation in leisure activities and social media
addiction levels of university students during the COVID-19 pandemic process according to some
variables and it aims to determine the relationship between the constraints to participation in leisure
activities and the social media addiction levels. The study group of the research consisted of 521
students, 297 females and 224 males, who are studying at Kastamonu University. The "Leisure Time
Constraints Scale Short Form (LTCS-SF)” which was developed by Alexandris & Carroll (1997), adapted
into Turkish by Gürbüz & Karaküçük (2007) and later tested for construct validity by Gürbüz, Öncü &
Emir (2020) and the “Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale” developed by Billieux, Griffiths, Kuss,
Demetrovics, Mazzoni & Pallesen (2016) and adapted into Turkish by Demirci (2019) were used as data
collection tools. In the study, descriptive statistical methods (percentage, frequency, mean, standard
deviation), t-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Pearson correlation test were used to
analyse the data. According to the results of the study, while there was a significant difference in the
variable of daily internet usage time in the Individual Psychology, Lack of Knowledge, and Facility sub�dimensions of LTCS-SF, there was no significant difference in the variables of gender and income level in
all sub-dimensions of LTCS-SF. In the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale was a significant difference in
the variables of gender and daily internet usage time, but no significant difference was found in the
income variable. It was seen that the participants have the most constraints to participation in the
facility, and their social media addiction level was at a medium level. As a result of the correlation
analysis, it was determined that all sub-dimensions of LTCS-SF were in a significant and positive
relationship with social media addiction. It can be said that the differences in the leisure time
constraints of the participants and their social media addictions were related to the restrictions in the
pandemic process.
... Second, behavioral strategies are actions that overcome constraints. Leisure constraint negotiation strategies include finding of partners, financial preparation and time management, leisure intensity control, leisure skill acquisition, and activity energy charging [36]. According to the previous studies on serious leisure and leisure constraint negotiation strategies, leisure constraints have a negative effect on serious leisure, while leisure constraint negotiation strategies have a positive effect on serious leisure participation [37][38][39]. ...
The purpose of this study was to explore the leisure constraint negotiation strategies adopted by the people participating in swimming as a serious leisure activity in the context of COVID-19 by using qualitative research methods. The study was conducted over five months, from September 2020 to January 2021, via the use of snowball sampling. Six unmarried employees in their 30s living in Seoul and Incheon, Korea, were the participants of this study. Data collection was conducted through in-depth interviews, two or three times among each participant. For data analysis, all the recorded contents stated by the participants were transcribed. The results are as follows: first, among the leisure constraint negotiation strategies, the cognitive constraint negotiation strategies were “supernatural attitude toward swimming” and “positive attitude toward the post-COVID-19 period”; and second, among the leisure constraint negotiation strategies, behavioral constraint negotiation strategies were derived as “substitution of activity and motivation” and “participating facilities and crowding management.” Based on these results, it can be concluded that the special leisure experiences and leisure constraint negotiation strategies only for swimming within the framework of facility use restrictions were caused due to COVID-19 and further suggested ways to improve the practical management of leisure and sports activities based on the facilities.
