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''Great Goddess,'' the deity of the Minoan Crete, Diktynna, is depicted holding a snake in each hand, highlighting her power over earth's blossom, 17th century BC. Archaeological Museum of Heraklion, Crete, Greece (Ó Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism-Fund of Archaeological Resources)
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The snake has served as a medical emblem for more than 2400 years, since its association with the ancient Greek god of medicine and healing, Asclepius, in the 4th century BC. Its symbolic background can be traced further back to the worship of gods of earth's blossom in ancient Egypt and earth-related deities of the archaic period of Greek antiquit...
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... century BC onward, the origin of this symbol can be traced to Minoan Crete and the ancient peoples of Thessaly, the mythical homeland of Asclepius in northern Greece, in the worship of deities of earth's blossom. The perpetual power of the earth's self-renewal and rejuvenation was deified in the figure of the Minoan ''Great Goddess'' Diktynna ( Fig. 1). The earth-related character of the goddess is reinforced by her connection to the serpent; its ability to perpetually rejuvenate by shedding its skin made it an underworld symbol of renewal of the vital powers of life, a ''kind demon'' [11]. In Thessaly we encounter the worship of the goddess Eileithyia, another deity of earth's ...
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... Snakes have been a source of fascination and symbolism since ancient times, being associated with rituals, good and evil mythology, fertility and healing. The snake has been on the medical emblem for over two millennia, based on the Greek God of healing and medicine Asclepius, who held a staff with a snake coiled around it (Antoniou et al. 2011). The advance of science has overtaken centuries of superstition about snakes, and snake venom research now spans the medical, pharmacological, ecological and molecular evolutionary domains (Chiappinelli 1983;Dutertre and Lewis 2010;Giorgianni et al. 2020;Oliveira et al. 2022a;Perry et al. 2022;Saviola et al. 2014;Whittington et al. 2018), with an exponential increase in publications over the last century (Sofyantoro et al. 2022). ...
Snake venoms are heterogeneous mixtures of proteins and peptides used for prey subjugation. With modern proteomics there has been a rapid expansion in our knowledge of snake venom composition, resulting in the venom proteomes of 30% of vipers and 17% of elapids being characterised. From the reasonably complete proteomic coverage of front-fanged snake venom composition (179 species—68 species of elapids and 111 species of vipers), the venoms of vipers and elapids contained 42 different protein families, although 18 were only reported in < 5% of snake species. Based on the mean abundance and occurrence of the 42 protein families, they can be classified into 4 dominant, 6 secondary, 14 minor, and 18 rare protein families. The dominant, secondary and minor categories account for 96% on average of a snake’s venom composition. The four dominant protein families are: phospholipase A2 (PLA2), snake venom metalloprotease (SVMP), three-finger toxins (3FTx), and snake venom serine protease (SVSP). The six secondary protein families are: L-amino acid oxidase (LAAO), cysteine-rich secretory protein (CRiSP), C-type lectins (CTL), disintegrins (DIS), kunitz peptides (KUN), and natriuretic peptides (NP). Venom variation occurs at all taxonomic levels, including within populations. The reasons for venom variation are complex, as variation is not always associated with geographical variation in diet. The four dominant protein families appear to be the most important toxin families in human envenomation, being responsible for coagulopathy, neurotoxicity, myotoxicity and cytotoxicity. Proteomic techniques can be used to investigate the toxicological profile of a snake venom and hence identify key protein families for antivenom immunorecognition.
... In India alone, there are around 58,000 SBE-induced annual deaths [3]. Snakes have played a central role in many of the ancient traditions and cultures of several religions and tribes across the world [4,5]. Snakes, particularly cobras, are worshipped in many countries including India and it is a common practice to provide milk, eggs, and other foods as offerings to snake statues (or live snakes in some places) [6,7]. ...
... For many people, the appearance of snakes in dreams is perceived as a bad omen. Traditional beliefs surrounding snakes go back thousands of years and are prominent in the history and mythology of almost all cultures [5,20]. Snakes are regarded as the representatives of gods, divine beings, bringers of fortune or misfortune, and their statues are worshipped in many parts of the world [4,7]. ...
India suffers the highest incidence of snakebite envenomation (SBE) in the world. Rural communities within India and other countries have long-held cultural beliefs surrounding snakes and SBE treatments, with snake statues present in numerous Hindu temples. While most cultural beliefs are well respected and do not affect anyone, some people worship live venomous snakes without any safety precautions. Moreover, they practice various inappropriate first aid and traditional treatments that exacerbate SBE-induced complications. We report an unusual case of SBE on the tongue of a patient who was bitten while worshipping Russell’s viper following the advice of an astrologer based on the appearance of a snake in the patient’s dream. Following the bite, the tongue was deeply incised by the priest as a first aid to mitigate SBE-induced complications. The patient suffered profuse bleeding and swelling of the tongue resulting in difficulties in intubating them. The patient regained consciousness after antivenom administration, intranasal ventilation, and blood removal from the mouth. The tongue underwent extensive surgery to restore movement and function. This report advises caution to those undertaking the extremely risky practice of worshipping live snakes and emphasises the urgent need to develop and enforce policies to mitigate such actions and educate rural communities.
... 8 İnsanın yılanla ilişkisinin tarihi, iğrenme, nefret ve korku, hayranlık, merak ve hatta idolleştirmeyi yanında getirmiştir. 9 Tıp kelimesinin orijinini aldığı Mısır Uygarlığındaki Teb (Thebai) şehrinin totemi yılandır, yani burada yılan tapınılan varlıktır. 10 Mitolojideki simgesi kutsal yılan olan Asklepios, tanrı Apollon'un oğludur ve tıp ve sağlık tanrısıdır. ...
... 14 Antik çağda Caduceus'un şifa sanatının bir sembolü olarak kullanıldığına dair bir kanıt bulunmamakla birlikte, bu sembolün Rönesans sırasında radikal bir revizyona uğradığı görülmektedir. Simya; kimya, farmakoloji ve bir ölçüde eczacılığın öncüsü olduğu için, simya ile uğraşanların hamisi olan Caduceus sembolü böylece alegorik olarak tıp sembolü olarak kullanılmıştır.9 Caduceus'un asası iyileşme, diriliş gibi kavramların da sembolik halini temsil etmektedir. ...
Sembol ya da simge “duyularla ifade edilemeyen bir şeyi belirten somut nesne veya işaret” olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Tıbbın sembolü antik çağlardan günümüze asaya sarılı yılan olarak bilinmektedir. Yılan birçok medeniyette, sağlık, hekimlik, bilgelik, güç ve ebedi yaşamla ilişkilendirilmiştir. Antik toplumlara ait mitolojilerde ve efsanelerde yılan her yıl deri değiştirerek gençleşmesi nedeniyle sonsuz yaşamın sembolü olarak kabul edilmiştir. Tıp sembolü bir dizi tarihi ve etik değeri içinde barındırmaktadır. Tıbbın sembolü olarak yılan figürleri çeşitli şekil ve formlarda karşımıza çıkmaktadır; bir asa etrafına sarılmış bir ya da iki yılan, kanatlı asaya sarılı iki yılan, kadehe sarılmış veya kâseye doğru uzanmış bir yılan, birbirine sarılmış iki yılan, dal ve yılan gibi. Bu derlemenin amacı, birbirine benzeyen, ama gerek tarihsel kökenleri gerekse temsil ettikleri anlamlar açısından birbirinden farklı olan bu sembollerin tarihi kökenlerini ortaya koymak ve temsil ettikleri mesleki ve etik değerleri açıklamaktır. Tıp sembolünün temsil ettiği değerlerin yaşatılması için tarihçesinin bilinmesinin önemli olduğu düşüncesindeyiz.
... Los símbolos son una poderosa representación de la evolución de las culturas como valores históricos, también éticos [1]; imágenes como el corazón, los ojos, el hígado o el cerebro son atributos de la salud humana, emociones o cognición, pero ninguno es incluido en los símbolos de la medicina [1]. Es común que se utilicen símbolos de medicina que se basan en deidades o bestias grecorromanas [1,2,7], hebreas [1,4], iraníes [3,5], egipcias [6], sirias [3,5], minoicas, italianas [3], símbolos suizos o de prescripciones [7], entre otros. La mayoría de los hospitales, escuelas de medicina, clínicas, cuerpos profesionales, prescripciones y revistas científicas médicas utilizan alguno de los símbolos de medicina conocidos [7]. ...
... La mitología griega es conocida por Apolo (dios de la luz, sol, verdad y medicina); su hijo Asclepio, dios de la sanación, que fue enseñado por Quirón (centauro que enseñó sobre medicina y cirugía); las hijas de Asclepio, Higía, diosa de la higiene y limpieza (medicina preventiva), y Panacea, diosa de los remedios (búsqueda indirecta médica) [1,2,3,4], al igual que sus dos hijos que se mencionan en La Ilíada, Macaón y Podalirio, médicos del ejército de Troya [3]. El que se utiliza a nivel global es el símbolo de Asclepio (griego) o Esculapio (romano), que se conforma de un bastón con una serpiente, esta última relacionada con el dragón en el caso de la cultura china y los aztecas y mayas con la serpiente emplumada Quetzalcóatl y Kukulkán [1,3]. ...
... El que se utiliza a nivel global es el símbolo de Asclepio (griego) o Esculapio (romano), que se conforma de un bastón con una serpiente, esta última relacionada con el dragón en el caso de la cultura china y los aztecas y mayas con la serpiente emplumada Quetzalcóatl y Kukulkán [1,3]. Tiene varios significados: freudiana (sexualidad), sumeria (sanar), minoica (conocer la hierba del nacimiento y resurrección; la estatua de Zurvan Akarana, que significa el arte de sanar, lo bueno y lo malo, prudencia y previsión, los buenos atributos de un médico), metafórica (fertilidad de la tierra, la conexión con nuestros ancestros y la continuidad del género de la vida y la muerte) [1,2,3,4]. La vara significa autoridad y sabiduría [3], ...
Deidad de la medicina mexica: Ixtlilton AUTOR: MARIO JOSUÉ SANDOVAL FALCONI • orcID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8337-6008 Los símbolos son una poderosa representación de la evolución de las culturas como valores históricos, tam-bién éticos [1]; imágenes como el corazón, los ojos, el hígado o el cerebro son atributos de la salud humana, emociones o cognición, pero ninguno es incluido en los símbolos de la medicina [1]. Es común que se utili-cen símbolos de medicina que se basan en deidades o bestias grecorromanas [1, 2, 7], hebreas [1, 4], iraníes [3, 5], egipcias [6], sirias [3, 5], minoicas, italianas [3], símbolos suizos o de prescripciones [7], entre otros. La mayoría de los hospitales, escuelas de medicina, clínicas, cuerpos profesionales, prescripciones y revistas científicas médicas utilizan alguno de los símbolos de medicina conocidos [7]. El simbolismo es parte de la historia y México ha sido reconocido por sus diversas culturas, deidades, artes (principalmente los códices) y escritura, botánica, etcétera. En la medicina prehispánica, por ejemplo la azteca, se trataba de determinar si el origen de la enfermedad se debía a algún castigo divino, por un destino nefasto, por brujería o simplemente una enfermedad natural; además, la salud y la enfermedad estaban relacionadas con los estados de equilibrio que afectaban tres esferas del ser humano: lo natural, lo social y lo divino [8]. Los órganos humanos eran esenciales en los sacrificios, ya que eran ofrendas para alguna deidad en específico; el corazón era considerado el centro vital de todo lo creado [8]. Ixtlilton/Tlaltetecuin, un hombre-dios, es considerado una deidad de la medicina mexica, de niños, pintura y escritura, de la danza, del pulque y hacedor de medicinas. Daremos una revisión de esta deidad y su tlachieloni o bastón que tienen significado para la curación del alma o enfermedad. SÍMBOLOS MÉDICOS La mitología griega es conocida por Apolo (dios de la luz, sol, verdad y medicina); su hijo Asclepio, dios de la sanación, que fue enseñado por Quirón (centauro que enseñó sobre medicina y cirugía); las hijas de Ascle-pio, Higía, diosa de la higiene y limpieza (medicina preventiva), y Panacea, diosa de los remedios (búsqueda indirecta médica) [1, 2, 3, 4], al igual que sus dos hijos que se mencionan en La Ilíada, Macaón y Podalirio, médicos del ejército de Troya [3]. El que se utiliza a nivel global es el símbolo de Asclepio (griego) o Escu-lapio (romano), que se conforma de un bastón con una serpiente, esta última relacionada con el dragón en el caso de la cultura china y los aztecas y mayas con la serpiente emplumada Quetzalcóatl y Kukulkán [1, 3]. Tiene varios significados: freudiana (sexualidad), sumeria (sanar), minoica (conocer la hierba del nacimiento y resurrección; la estatua de Zurvan Akarana, que significa el arte de sanar, lo bueno y lo malo, prudencia y previsión, los buenos atributos de un médico), metafórica (fertilidad de la tierra, la conexión con nuestros an-cestros y la continuidad del género de la vida y la muerte) [1, 2, 3, 4]. La vara significa autoridad y sabiduría [3],
... It may be adjusted according to the clinical response. Doses can be rounded to ensure they are able to be measured by parents and care givers accurately.55 Pediatric pharmacology developed initially from the extrapolation of therapeutic practice and experience in adults and the use of "scaled down" adult doses. ...
This reference book is prepared for students, practitioners, teachers and researchers in the field of medical and health science. Pharmacy is as old as human life. However, it was only known as a discipline at the beginning of 19th century in Ethiopia. Although pharmacy is the third largest health profession in the world, most understand it as if it is equivalent to pharmacology. Although described as a separate field by some, pharmacology is still a branch of pharmacy. Pharmacy is all about every aspects of drugs, whereas pharmacology is specifically about the interaction between drugs and living organisms or cell. Notwithstanding with the aforementioned concepts, pharmacology is the main filament that kept pharmacy in clinical practice. Had it not been for pharmacology, pharmacy would have been a purely product based applied science many years ago. The main goal of this book is thus, to provide concise information regarding the basic differences between pharmacy and pharmacology.
... At that time, prayers, sacrifices and dream interpretations played a crucial role in the healing pathway, but the ancient doctors also stitched cuts, set broken bones and administered opium for pain. 27 The foundations of medicine are in the island of Delos, which belongs to the Cyclades archipelago in the Greek sea. According to local mythology, Delos was the birthplace of Apollo, who is acknowledged as the original source of health and healing. ...
After the dramatic coronavirus outbreak at the end of 2019 in Wuhan, Hubei province, China, on 11 March 2020, a pandemic was declared by the WHO. Most countries worldwide imposed a quarantine or lockdown to their citizens, in an attempt to prevent uncontrolled infection from spreading. Historically, quarantine is the 40-day period of forced isolation to prevent the spread of an infectious disease. In this educational paper, a historical overview from the sacred temples of ancient Greece-the cradle of medicine-to modern hospitals, along with the conceive of healthcare systems, is provided. A few foods for thought as to the conflict between ethics in medicine and shortage of personnel and financial resources in the coronavirus disease 2019 era are offered as well.
... Throughout human history, the use of symbols has been a way to present powerful ideas, whose meaning was often lost or misinterpreted with the passing of time. 1 The snake, which can be found in every culture, was used to symbolize emotions ranging from fear to adoration. 2 The characteristic to shed its skin has been associated with the circle of life and the fact that the snake's own poison can also be the antivenom made it a metaphorical symbol for medicine. 3 The two most renowned snake symbols used in medicine are the rod of Asclepius and the staff of Hermes or Caduceus. ...
... 16,[18][19][20] Minoan Crete and Ancient Greece In c. 1600 BCE, the earth's ability to renew and revive herself was worshipped in the form of Diktynna, the Minoan ''Great Goddess'', who was represented with a serpent in each hand, emphasizing her domination over earth's blossom. 1,2,10 What is more, the Cretan myth of Glaukos, son of Minos, correlates the snake with rebirth and resurrection. 1 According to Hyginus, Glaukos, son of Minos, fell into a jar full of honey and died, while he was playing ball. ...
... The snake was simultaneously a destructor and a savior. 2,6,17,22,26 Hermes According to Frothingham, the ancestor of the Greek Hermes was the Babylonian Ningishzida. Hermes was a pre-Olympian God and the proto-Hermes was a snake God. ...
The serpent is the most popular representative symbol of medicine. The two main figures commonly used are the rod of Asclepius and the caduceus. Much controversy exists in the literature on whether the caduceus is a false symbol for medicine or not. The history of how these depictions came to be ambassadors of the medical science is elusive to many physicians. Scholars suggest that the origin of this false belief dates back to 1902, when the US Army Medical Corps first incorporated the caduceus as its symbol. This current essay is an attempt to discover and interpret how the snake came to be part of the rod of Asclepius and the caduceus, and constitute the symbol of medicine in our days. It is widely accepted that a doctor's obligation is not only in healing the ill, but the task that is bestowed upon him is more complex. Therefore, one should be considered more of a physician rather than simply a doctor.
... Associated at once with sin and death as well as rejuvenation and resurrection, the healing symbol can be traced from ancient Middle Eastern cultures (including Hebraic, passing on to Christianity and Islam), whose arrival subsumed many pagan beliefs. It has even been argued that the rod has been replaced by the cross and the serpent by Christ himself (Antoniou et al. 2011). ...
Of some 3700 extant species of snake, less than 750 are venomous – most of them not greatly harmful to humans. Yet snakes occupy an outsized niche in human imagination, both in regard to their potential medical impacts and in other cultural roles. In this chapter, we review available information on snakebites and fatalities from around the world, describe current recommended treatment of snakebite, and review the role snakes fulfill in world folklore. Though less common and lethal than often perceived, snakebites affect an estimated five million people each year and cause as many as 125,000 fatalities. Many of the traditional “treatments” have little or no positive impact, but access to the one verified remedy, antivenin, remains particularly limited in some parts of the developing world, where most bites and fatalities occur. Perception of snakes is especially ambivalent in the developed world, perhaps because of Judeo-Christian-Islamic associations, although the Greco-Roman-derived snake-entwined staff also serves as the emblem of medicine and healing.
... The symbol depicting two entwined snake around a winged staff is referred to as the Caduceus (Figure 2) [11][12][13]. Historically, Asclepius was a demigod, the son of god Apollo, who lived in the latter part of the 8th century BC, who heals people from their sicknesses [14][15][16]. By 500 BC, the acceptance of Asclepius as a demigod of healing was more established among physician-healers in Ancient Greece, making these physician-healers to be regarded as Asclepiads -the disciples of Asclepius [15]. ...
Background: Historically, the Rod of Asclepius is considered as the correct symbol of Medicine. Unfortunately, many medical/health institutions in the world have erroneously interchanged the Rod of Asclepius symbol with erroneous symbols (e.g. Caduceus) to depict Medicine. This study aims to assess the official logos (i.e. institutional symbols) of university teaching hospitals in Nigeria and determine if these logos actually depict the true symbol of Medicine.
Methods: This study was a cross-sectional online survey of teaching hospitals in Nigeria on their official logos. A total of 40,556 operating hospitals and clinics in Nigeria were identified. After systematic screening, a total of 35 hospitals were identified as university teaching hospitals and used for the survey. Official information about the geopolitical zone, ownership and official logo of the selected hospitals was obtained (via online and offline search). Data collected was analysed using SPSS version 22 software.
Results: Out of the 35 surveyed university teaching hospitals, only 7 did not have snake(s) as part of their official logo. However, out of the remaining 28 hospitals that have snake(s) as part of their official logos, only 57.1% (16/28) of them have only one snake in their logo. Exactly half of the surveyed hospitals having logos with two entwined snakes (i.e. Caduceus) were owned by the federal government. Bivariate analysis showed that there exists statistically significant relationship between the geopolitical zone where a hospital is situated and the number of entwined snakes indicated in their official logo (p-value=0.034).
Conclusion: This study shows that the correct symbol of Medicine is not universally indicated in the official logos of the university teaching hospitals in Nigeria.
... There is no evidence about Caduceum (Figure 2), which is a doubleheaded snake figure wrapped around the winged rod, Caduceus (25) (Figure 3a). In Europe, only at the end of the Middle age and in early Renaissance age, the double-headed snake wrapped around the winged rod of Hermes began to be used as a symbol associated with health (18,(26)(27)(28)(29). The first official use of Caduceum is claimed to be by the US Marine Service (29) (Figure 3b). ...
... However, double-headed snake figure of God Hermes is mostly not used by medical associations in Greece. Instead, the snake figure of God Asclepius that was originated from mythology serves as a symbol for several Greek medical associations (28). ...
Currently, health-related professions and institutions are symbolized with an illustration of a snake wrapped around a branch of a tree, a stick or a rod. In this article, we will try to find out why the snake, which has influenced the humankind since the ancient ages and has been given place in legends and mythologies, has been depicted in ancient age reliefs, statues and coins, and has taken part in written texts, is accepted as the symbol of health and medicine in the light of ancient archaeological coin images.
