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Graphical Representation of the Relationship Between Individualism-Collectivism and Overall Expressivity Endorsement NOTE: Much of this relationship is carried by the relationship between individualism with happiness and surprise.

Graphical Representation of the Relationship Between Individualism-Collectivism and Overall Expressivity Endorsement NOTE: Much of this relationship is carried by the relationship between individualism with happiness and surprise.

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Despite the importance of the concept of cultural display rules in explaining cultural differences in emotional expression, and despite the fact that it has been over 30 years since this concept was coined (Ekman & Friesen, 1969), there is yet to be a study that surveys display rules across a wide range of cultures. This article reports such a stud...

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... thus com- puted country-level correlations between individualism and overall expressivity endorse- ment computed across all DRAI items. As hypothesized, individualism was positively correlated with higher expressivity norms (Figure 1). 5 Emotion-specific analyses, however, indicated that individualism was positively correlated only with expression norms for hap- piness and surprise (Table 2, left). ...
Context 2
... is precisely what some researchers have done, including Hofstede (2001), who studied business employees; Schwartz (1999;Schwartz & Bardi, 2001), who studied teachers as well as students; and McCrae (Allik & McCrae, 2004), who has studied student and nonstudent samples in his cross-cultural studies of personality. This may explain why Zimbabwe was an outlier in Figure 1. Their very high expression endorsement score may be driven by the university student sample obtained in the study, which may not be representative of the average citi- zen in this country. ...

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... An alternative explanation for why fit in language use more effectively differentiates cultures than fit in emotion endorsement could be that language people use to describe their experiences is more influenced by the display norms prescribed by their culture (thus reflecting what individuals were at ease to express), whereas their emotion endorsement is less affected by these norms (thus more directly reflecting 'true' emotional experience). While the distinction between emotional expression and experience has often been discussed in explaining cultural differences in emotions Matsumoto et al., 2008), our approach focuses on how language and emotions are both embedded in cultural systems of meaning-making. From this perspective, one is no more "authentic" than the other; in principle, they should each reflect (different aspects of) 'cultural fit. ...
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Cultural fit is thought to benefit immigrants’ wellbeing and integration. Previous research on cultural fit focused on explicit attitudes (e.g., how individuals identify with their heritage and host cultures) at the expense of psychological processes (e.g., the extent to which individuals make meaning in similar ways with their surrounding culture). We examined cultural fit in meaning-making in emotional contexts in two complementary ways: first, based on patterns of emotion endorsement (emotional fit), second, based on patterns of word use describing emotional situations (language fit). Dutch-speaking Belgians and Turkish migrants in Belgium (Ns = 100) described two positive and two negative emotional situations, and rated the intensity of their experience on a set of emotion terms. Language patterns in the descriptions, as quantified by the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count, distinguished between cultures more effectively than rating patterns. The two fit measures did not converge; they were in fact negatively associated in some analyses, particularly for Turkish migrants’ emotional fit and language fit with Belgian culture, suggesting that when these migrants felt similar emotions, they attended to different aspects of their experience. Future research should disentangle the implications of various types of cultural fit on outcomes relevant to immigrant minorities.
... Although both Chinese and Mexican cultures are considered collective cultures, they differ in specific emotion values. In Chinese/Asian cultures, open expression of emotions in public is discouraged due to its potential threat to interpersonal harmony [21]. Moreover, the experience of low-arousal positive emotions (e.g., calm) is preferred over high-arousal positive emotions (e.g., excitement) in Chinese/Asian individuals [22]. ...
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Background/Objectives: Preschool children learn to express emotions in accordance with sociocultural norms. Parental emotion talk (ET) has been theorized to shape these processes. Limited research has examined preschoolers' observed emotion expressions and emotion-related behaviors in culturally diverse samples. We sought to explore the following: (1) cultural group differences and similarities in observed emotion expressions (anger, sadness, and positive emotions) and emotion-related behaviors between Chinese American and Mexican American preschoolers, and (2) the concurrent links between parental ET and children's emotion expressions. Methods: In a sample of 86 children (age range = 38 to 70 months, 62% girls) from low-income immigrant families (Mexican Americans/MA = 43 and Chinese Americans/CA = 43), the observed children's emotion expressions and emotion-related behaviors were coded based on a frustration-eliciting task. Parental ET quality and quantity were coded from transcripts of a parent-child shared reading task. Results: MA children expressed more anger and sadness, but the two groups did not differ on positive emotions or emotion-related behaviors. Multiple regressions showed that children whose parents engaged in more ET expressed higher levels of anger and sadness and used more non-feeling state languages than children whose parents engaged in less ET. Conclusions: The results revealed cultural variations in preschool-age children's emotion expressions and provided support for associations between parental ET and children's emotion expressions.
... However, there are some inconsistencies in this literature. In line with the view that Western cultures value/encourage an open expression of emotions (Matsumoto et al. 2008), Asian and Latino immigrant parents in the U.S. endorsed higher use of minimizing reactions than European American parents (Lugo-Candelas et al. 2015;Yang et al. 2020). In contrast to the finding that higher parental minimizing reaction was associated with poorer child adjustment in Western samples (e.g., Eisenberg et al. 1999;Jones et al. 2002), nonsignificant relations between minimizing reaction and children's psychological adjustment were reported in non-Western samples (e.g., Lugo-Candelas et al. 2015;Tao et al. 2010;Yang et al. 2020;Wang et al. 2024). ...
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Parental reactions to children’s negative emotions (PRCNEs), a type of emotion socialization, has been theorized to shape children’s socioemotional development. Few studies have examined cultural variations in PRCNE among Western/Minority World cultures. The present study used a cross-cultural, preschool-based sample of 101 parent–child dyads (child age = 36–79 months, 42% females; parent age = 19–58 years, 89% mothers) from two countries: U.S. (n = 33, 58% White/European American, 87% with college or above education) and France (n = 68, 61% French or other European origin, 40% with college or above education). Parents self-reported PRCNEs across 12 hypothetical scenarios. Children’s behavioral problems and prosocial behaviors were rated by parents and preschool teachers. Children’s emotion knowledge was measured by a behavioral task. We examined (1) cultural group variations in PRCNEs, and (2) the relations between PRCNE and children’s socioemotional outcomes. Controlling for demographics, French parents endorsed more non-supportive PRCNE than U.S. parents. Across both cultures, parents’ higher use of distress and punitive reactions were linked to lower parent-rated child prosocial behaviors. These findings revealed differences and similarities in PRCNEs between French and U.S. families and have implications for early childhood education practices promoting socioemotional competence.
... Conversely, when parents' levels of familism were high, the spillover effect of parental emotion dysregulation on the family climate was blocked, making the mediating effect of family negative expressiveness nonsignificant. Parents high in familism place a strong emphasis on interpersonal harmony within the family context and might be more likely to suppress their own negative emotions in this situation when they find it difficult to regulate their emotions and avoid spreading negative emotions to other family members (Matsumoto et al., 2008). Therefore, they could reduce the impact of This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
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Parental emotion regulation is closely associated with the development of young children’s behavioral problems. The present study aims to investigate the potential mediating role of family emotional expressiveness in the association between parental emotion dysregulation and externalizing problems among Chinese preschoolers and to further examine whether this mediation depends on parental endorsement of the cultural value of Chinese familism. A survey study was conducted to examine the moderated mediation model. A total of 161 parents of preschoolers (aged 3–5 years, M = 4.24, SD = 0.60 at T1) participated in all three waves of assessment. The results showed that parental emotion dysregulation indirectly predicted preschoolers’ externalizing problems through family negative expressiveness for parents with low endorsement of familism, whereas the mediating effect was not significant for parents with high endorsement of familism. The results contribute to the literature on emotional parenting in the Chinese cultural context and underscore the role of familism values in the relationship between emotional parenting factors and children’s behavioral problems.
... Another limitation probably lies in language and therefore in the lack of cultural diversity. On the one hand, emotions may have different meanings and expressions in different cultures, and on the other hand, the significance of relationships, friendships, and family may also vary (Matsumoto et al., 2008). Jardine et al. (2022) was able to demonstrate the assumption of the moderating relationship of culture for romantic relationships, with English-language studies tending to show higher effects compared to non-English-language studies. ...
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... Given the cultural relevance of familial interdependence in India, new items were included that assessed sharing positive emotion with others, and these also loaded onto the Enhancing factor (e.g., "Encourage me to share happiness with others"). These items would likely reflect enhancing in communities in Global North too, given emotional expression with others being relevant in individualist cultures (Matsumoto et al., 2008). Although all Dampening items on the adapted RAHAS in our study were identical or highly similar to those on the original RAHAS Dampening factor (e.g., "Not say anything, but act unhappy"; Katz et al., 2014), reflecting behaviors such as providing negative responses, raising concerns, minimizing PA, and punishing PA, some original RAHAS dampening items loaded on the newly identified Balancing factor in our Indian sample. ...
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Parents' responses to youth positive affect (PA) have been dichotomized as enhancing and dampening. This dichotomy may not fit with cultural scripts about emotion in communities where a balance between positive and negative emotions is preferred. To assess parents' PA socialization in a culturally relevant manner for urban, middle‐class families in India, we developed a new measure of parental goals about happiness and adapted the Responses to Adolescent Happy Affect Scale (RAHAS). We tested the psychometric properties of these measures and assessed relations among parental socialization goals and behaviors across 5 months. Our sample included 377 adolescent (84.4% girls; M age = 14.47) and parent (63.9% mothers) dyads, primarily Hindu, in Bengaluru, India. Two parental goals factors emerged: “Balancing and Controlling” and “Maximizing and Sharing” happiness. Three factors emerged for the adapted RAHAS. Two factors were the same as the original RAHAS: (a) “Enhancing” strategies to upregulate PA and (b) “Dampening” strategies to downregulate PA. A third factor emerged: (c) “Balancing” strategies, which were culturally salient for families in India and aimed for moderation. Among socialization behaviors, “Enhancing” and “Dampening” were inversely related, while “Balancing” related positively to each. Balancing and Controlling goals were only correlated to “Balancing” behaviors. Maximizing and Sharing goals were correlated positively with “Enhancing” and inversely with “Dampening.” Longitudinally, Maximizing and Sharing and Balancing and Controlling goals were related to a significant increase and marginal decrease in “Dampening,” respectively. Challenging the dichotomy, our findings highlight the relevance of balancing to theories of PA socialization.
... While East Asians expect most emotional signals to occur in the eye area, Westerners expect they will occur in both the eye and mouth areas (Jack et al., 2012). These cultural differences in the way emotions are signaled have been proposed to emerge following exposure to different social norms prescribing which emotions are appropriate to express in different contexts and the intensity with which they should be expressed (Ekman, 1971;Matsumoto et al., 2008a). Collectivistic cultures report being, on average, less expressive (i.e., to suppress emotional expression more) compared to individualistic cultures. ...
... Collectivistic cultures report being, on average, less expressive (i.e., to suppress emotional expression more) compared to individualistic cultures. Moreover, the more individualistic a culture is, the more they report expressing positive emotions (Matsumoto et al., 2008a). The socially accepted intensity with which emotions might be expressed also varies from culture to culture and depends on the specific emotion expressed (Matsumoto et al., 2008b). ...
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Psychology and behavioral sciences lack diversity in their participant samples. In visual perception, more specifically, common practice assumes that the processes studied are fundamental and universal. In contrast, cultural psychology has accumulated evidence of cultural variability in visual perception. In face processing, for instance, this cultural variability may sabotage intercultural relations. Policies aim to increase diversity in research, supporting cultural psychology, and to increase awareness among professional workforces, as well as the general population, concerning how cultural variability may influence their interpretation of another's behavior.
... Studies involving devices that are designed for public places (e.g., workplace, classroom) or mental health in everyday life have stressed the importance of inconspicuous interaction and interface, protecting privacy and mitigating stigma (e.g., [5,6,64,164]). Due to sociocultural [99,117], contextual [36,159], or personal [53,62] factors, people may tend to avoid displaying certain affective states in certain circumstances. Likewise, because of possible stigma, people might not want others to notice their interactions with TUIs addressing mental health problems [64,164]. ...
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... Culture and ethnicity have a major impact on children's socioemotional development (Carlo & de Guzman, 2009;García Coll et al., 1996;Whiting & Edwards, 1988). One study that was conducted across 32 countries showed that persons from collectivistic cultures tended to suppress emotions and not freely express them (Matsumoto et al., 2008); another one showed that in the Turkish culture, children were encouraged to express sadness rather than anger because the expression of anger might hurt the family hierarchy (Corapci et al., 2012). ...
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Self-regulation (SR; emotion-related, and behavioral), executive function, and theory of mind (ToM) all play an important role in child socioemotional functioning (SEF). However, much remains unknown about the interplay among these abilities when facing various challenging situations. Additionally, the role of these abilities in child SEF has not yet been studied among minority children from an Eastern culture. Thus, we conducted one study with two models to examine the combined contribution of these core abilities, concurrently, to children’s SEF during the transition to kindergarten, and longitudinally (about 3 years later) to children’s SEF during COVID-19. Overall, 202 kindergarten children (aged 4.9–6.5 years) participated, of which 136 of them in the longitudinal follow-up (aged 8.83–10.6 years). We used behavioral tasks and teacher and maternal reports. Mothers also reported their own distress during the COVID-19 pandemic. During the transition to kindergarten, we found that emotion-related SR was positively related to children’s SEF. We also found that emotion-related SR moderated the relation between inhibition and ToM. In the follow-up study, we found that emotion-related SR in kindergarten significantly predicted children’s SEF during the COVID-19 crisis, directly and indirectly, through children’s SEF in kindergarten and their maternal COVID-related distress. Moreover, emotion-related SR moderated the longitudinal association between children’s ToM at kindergarten age and their SEF during the COVID-19 crisis. Our findings highlight the central role that emotion-related SR plays in children’s ability to face different challenges.
... However, in daily interpersonal communication, facial expressions with a more subtle intensity of emotional expression are displayed more frequently than those with a high intensity (Matsumoto & Hwang, 2014;Motley & Camden, 1988). Regarding the influence of display rules, which are social and cultural norms and conventions for appropriate emotional expressions in a given social situation and are known to exist in each culture, it has also been reported that, in Japanese culture, displays of emotional expression tend to be suppressed in social and public situations (Ekman & Friesen, 1975;Matsumoto et al., 2008;Safdar et al., 2009). For example, a comparative study between Japanese and American university students showed that Japanese were more likely than Americans to suppress emotional expression in social situations (Ekman & Friesen, 1975). ...
... Emotional expression tends to be more suppressed in social and public situations, especially in Japanese culture. Therefore, it may be common for facial expressions to have a low or medium level of emotional expression intensity in daily interpersonal communication (Ekman & Friesen, 1975;Matsumoto et al., 2008;Safdar et al., 2009). As a result, Japanese people may have a low threshold for facial expressions that exhibit low or medium intensity because they are exposed to emotional expressions that are not of a high intensity on a daily basis. ...
... Therefore, it is possible that in Japanese culture, facial expressions with high intensity, such as those associated with signs of dominance, may create a concern related to a negative impression, such as an unfavorable one, to the receiver (Shioiri et al., 1999). This concern about facial expressions with high intensity may stem from the idea of collectivism or interdependent contractual self, which is based on the belief that avoiding such facial expressions is more likely to lead to harmonious relationships with others (Heine et al., 1999;Markus & Kitayama, 1991;Matsumoto et al., 2005Matsumoto et al., , 2008. In other words, in Eastern culture, which values cooperative relationships with others, highly intense expressions associated with signs of dominance are not common, and they may be viewed as anharmonic. ...
Article
This study examined the relationship between the intensity of emotional expressions in facial stimuli and receivers' decoding accuracy for six basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. A laboratory experiment was conducted using the forced‐choice method, in which the intensity of each stimulus was manipulated at every 10% interval using the morphing technique. To explore whether a linear relationship would be observed when the intensity was finely manipulated at 10% intervals, a hierarchical multiple regression analysis was performed. The mean percentage of correct responses for each stimulus was the dependent variable, and the linear, quadratic, and cubic terms of the stimulus intensity were the independent variables. The results showed that the linear model was not adopted as the final model for all facial expressions; that is, the effect of the squared term of intensity was significant for anger, disgust, fear, and sadness, while the effect of the cubic term of intensity was significant for happiness and surprise. Our findings indicate that a higher intensity of emotional expression does not yield higher decoding accuracy.