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Global donkey population sizes for each country in 2018 Data from FAOSTAT, where data has not been made available to FAOSTAT countries are shaded black.
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Knowing how many donkeys there are in specific countries where welfare is compromised is a key concern for targeting efforts to improve donkey welfare. Additionally, accurate population estimates are vital for providing evidence and addressing the impact of population threats. The FAO annually report the number of donkeys and mules in each country....
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... There are an estimated 50 million donkeys and 10 million mules working across the world [1]. They are used to cart goods and people, to carry water, bricks, other construction materials and waste; as draught power in agriculture; and for ceremonial purposes [2]. ...
One of the most problematic situations for the estimated 60 million working donkeys and mules across the world is within the brick kiln environment. In countries such as Egypt, Nepal, India and Pakistan, donkeys and mules carry dried bricks into small kilns either by pulling carts or carrying loaded packs. The health and welfare problems of this environment are well documented: they may carry excessive loads; work long hours, have difficulties accessing food, water and rest options; and can frequently suffer untreated illnesses including dental problems, lameness and open wounds from poorly fitting harnesses and aggressive handlers. The impact of this environment on their mental health has been largely overlooked. We use a behavioral comparative analogy approach, comparing the clinical signs and risk factors associated with learned helplessness, depression and complex post-traumatic stress disorder (cPTSD) in humans and laboratory studies in other animals with evidence from the veterinary literature. Based on an analysis of seven quantitative veterinary studies that have evaluated the health and behavior of kiln donkeys and mules, we argue that their behavior may be consistent with learned helplessness, depression and/or cPTSD. Furthermore, the kiln environment contains many of the key environmental risk factors associated with the development of these disorders. And, because of certain behavioral differences from horses, donkeys and mules are at greater risk of their physical and mental health being overlooked. This finding, adding to the wealth of evidence for their poor health, should further strengthen efforts to replace their use in the kiln environment.
... Nigeria has an estimated donkey population exceeding one million [14], primarily concentrated in the northern regions, where they are used for various purposes, including water drawing, threshing, farm cultivation, transportation, and meat, milk, and hide production (for gelatin manufacturing) [15][16][17]. They are also utilized for companionship, therapeutic activities, and ecotourism [18]. ...
... However, despite being banned, chloramphenicol is still used in Nigerian livestock [36], necessitating stricter regulatory enforcement. Resistance rates reported by previous donkey studies differed from those in this study, with higher resistance to erythromycin (20%), and lower resistance to penicillin (12-18%), gentamicin (25%), and chloramphenicol (2%) [15,17]. ...
Background: Animal-associated antimicrobial-resistant staphylococci pose a One Health concern, as they can spread into the environment and cause serious infections. Yet, donkeys in Nigeria have been largely overlooked as potential reservoirs of these pathogens. Aim/Objectives: To isolate Staphylococcus aureus from donkeys in Obollo-Afor, southeast Nigeria, assess their antimicrobial resistance profiles, and evaluate their virulence potential. Materials and Methods: Staphylococci were isolated from the nasal swabs of 250 donkeys, using mannitol salt agar, confirmed biochemically, with Staphylococcus aureus identified via a latex agglutination test and mass spectrometry. The resistance profiles of the isolates, including in regard to methicillin, inducible clindamycin, and β-lactamase production, were determined using disc diffusion, while vancomycin resistance was assessed through the use of agar dilution. The virulence factors were evaluated phenotypically. Results: Of the 250 samples, 11 (4.4%) contained S. aureus and 239 (95.6%) grew other Staphylococcus species. The resistance rates of the 11 S. aureus isolates to gentamicin, penicillin, tigecycline, cefoxitin, linezolid, and chloramphenicol were 45.5%, 66.7%, 54.5%, 27.3%, 36.4%, and 18.1%, respectively. The phenotypic methicillin-resistant S. aureus prevalence was 1.2%. Additionally, 23.5% of the S. aureus isolates were multidrug resistant, with a mean antibiotic resistance index of 0.25. All the S. aureus isolates exhibited virulence factors like clumping factor expression, catalase, caseinase, lecithinase, and gelatinase activity, while the occurrence of haemagglutinin, biofilm, pellicle, and hemolysin occurred in 27.3%, 54.5%, 36.4%, 72.2%, respectively. Conclusion: Although a small percentage of donkeys in Nigeria may harbor S. aureus, these animals are potentially spreading antimicrobial resistance, including multidrug and methicillin resistance, to humans and the environment.
... The global population of donkeys is estimated to be around 50 million, including a diverse range of breeds and species, many of which are classified as endangered because of decreasing numbers and limited genetic diversity (Kugler et al., 2008;FAO, 2011;Norris et al., 2021). There are about 189 recognized breeds (FAO, 2011). ...
The Balkan donkey (Equus asinus asinus), an endangered and historically significant breed native to Serbia, is critically understudied in terms of its health and physiology. As the population dwindles, a deeper understanding of its physiological parameters is vital for developing tailored conservation strategies. This study evaluated hematological and biochemical parameters in 70 clinically healthy Balkan donkeys across three age groups (Group A: 5-7 months, Group B: 12-14 months, Group C: 4–7 years) to uncover age-related trends and provide foundational health data for the breed. Significant age-related differences (p < 0.05) were identified in several key parameters. Younger donkeys (Groups A and B) exhibited heightened immune activity, as evidenced by elevated white blood cell (WBC) counts, reflecting their developing immune systems. Adults (Group C) showed stabilized immune profiles and elevated urea levels, possibly linked to protein metabolism or hydration status. Consistent red blood cell (RBC) and platelet levels across groups underscored robust oxygen transport and coagulation functions, while higher phosphorus levels in younger donkeys indicated growth-related metabolic demands. Stable liver (ALT) and kidney (creatinine) function across groups highlighted the resilience of this breed to environmental and physiological challenges. This study provides the first comprehensive dataset on hematological and biochemical health parameters for the Balkan donkey, offering critical insights for veterinary diagnostics, conservation, and management. By establishing a foundation for future research, this work not only contributes to safeguarding this endangered breed but also enriches our understanding of donkey physiology in challenging ecological contexts.
... Globally, it is thought that 112 million working equids support the lives and livelihoods of more than 600 million people in low and middle income countries (LMICs), although it is acknowledged that these figures are likely to be largely underestimated (Norris et al. 2021). Working equids provide an essential role in generating income for families across a broad range of industries as well as providing access to basic necessities (Pritchard et al. 2005;Pritchard 2010). ...
When targeting human behaviour change for animal welfare improvement, engaging with communities is vital. Equid-reliant communities are often resource poor, geographically isolated and disparities in literacy rates are common, presenting challenges to ‘traditional’ forms of engagement. Arts-based initiatives using non-written communication methods such as storytelling and performance, may be ideal media to convey positive welfare messages. In this study we evaluate the feasibility of using forum theatre to sensitise donkey-reliant communities regarding key welfare issues. Through a co-creation process, a piece of interactive forum theatre on donkey welfare was produced and staged for the public and in local schools. Post-performance questionnaire data were collected from adults and both pre- and post-performance data in schools to evaluate changes in knowledge and attitudes resulting from the performance. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected using Likert scales and open questions, respectively. Audience feedback was positive, with more than 90% of audiences strongly agreeing that they enjoyed the performance. More than 85% of adult respondents strongly agreed that the performance raised their awareness of three key indicators: donkey health needs; donkey welfare needs; and how much donkeys should carry. For youth audiences, comparison of pre- and post-performance measures demonstrated positive changes in the belief that donkeys feel pain, how much individuals liked donkeys and how confident they felt in identifying how a donkey was feeling. Although participatory arts-based approaches remain rare in the animal welfare sector, the study highlights the potential value of these methods in promoting community engagement for positive animal welfare changes.
... Many donkeys are sourced from Africa, which traditionally has two-thirds of the world's donkey population [3] with their skins exported to China, as domestic supply is insufficient to meet the demand for eijao [4]. Some African countries have banned the slaughter of donkeys for their skins; however, with porous borders and a lack of enforcement, trade continues [3]. ...
Donkey slaughter in West Africa has received limited scientific attention, despite increasing over recent years. This study aimed to explore factors affecting donkey welfare, both ante-mortem and at slaughter, in the Upper East region of Ghana. A total of 134 donkeys at five different slaughter points were assessed using animal-based indicators. Slaughter involved either blunt force trauma (BFT) using a wooden pole (1 location) or a metal hammer (2 locations); or non-stun ventral neck incision (VNI) (2 locations). Time to loss of consciousness (or return) was assessed, with behavioural and brainstem signs of sensibility/consciousness. Negative human–animal interactions occurred ante-mortem, with animals struck multiple times and handled using aversive methods. Donkeys hit on the head with the wooden pole were five times more likely to be ineffectively concussed (p < 0.001, OR: 5.4, CI: 1.9–15.4) compared to the hammer and took significantly longer to lose consciousness (p < 0.001). The mean time to loss of corneal reflex for those hit by wooden pole was 166.9 s (SD 21.1; range: 79–425 s), compared to just one animal displaying corneal reflex for 59 s after being hit by metal hammer. For those animals slaughtered through VNI, corneal reflex was observed for a mean time of 96.5 s (SD 4.3, range 26–164 s). The findings of this study highlight major concerns regarding the methods used for donkey slaughter in the Upper East region in Ghana, particularly regarding aversive ante-mortem handling and prolonged time to loss of consciousness during VNI and ineffective BFT in inducing unconsciousness by concussion.
... Many donkeys are sourced from Africa, which traditionally has two-thirds of the world's donkey population [3] with their skins exported to China, as domestic supply is insufficient to meet the demand for eijao [4]. Some African countries have banned the slaughter of donkeys for their skins; however, with porous borders and a lack of enforcement, trade continues [3]. ...
Simple Summary: Donkey slaughter in Ghana was assessed through observing human-animal interactions prior to slaughter, and different methods of slaughter (slaughter without pre-stunning and two different methods of blunt force trauma to the head) were evaluated. Animals were hit multiple times by personnel during handling and movement. At slaughter, animals killed through neck cutting without pre-stunning showed signs of consciousness up to a mean time of 96.5 s. Animals experiencing blunt force trauma to the head took up to 166.9 s to lose consciousness when using a wooden pole. This method was five times more likely to be ineffective compared to blunt force trauma with a metal hammer. This study shows that donkeys in Ghana currently experience welfare compromise during all stages of the slaughter process; in particular, through aversive handling practises and ineffective slaughter methods, which delay the time to loss of consciousness and potentially increase suffering. Abstract: Donkey slaughter in West Africa has received limited scientific attention, despite increasing over recent years. This study aimed to explore factors affecting donkey welfare, both ante-mortem and at slaughter, in the Upper East region of Ghana. A total of 134 donkeys at five different slaughter points were assessed using animal-based indicators. Slaughter involved either blunt force trauma (BFT) using a wooden pole (1 location) or a metal hammer (2 locations); or non-stun ventral neck incision (VNI) (2 locations). Time to loss of consciousness (or return) was assessed, with behavioural and brainstem signs of sensibility/consciousness. Negative human-animal interactions occurred ante-mortem, with animals struck multiple times and handled using aversive methods. Donkeys hit on the head with the wooden pole were five times more likely to be ineffectively concussed (p < 0.001, OR: 5.4, CI: 1.9-15.4) compared to the hammer and took significantly longer to lose consciousness (p < 0.001). The mean time to loss of corneal reflex for those hit by wooden pole was 166.9 s (SD 21.1; range: 79-425 s), compared to just one animal displaying corneal reflex for 59 s after being hit by metal hammer. For those animals slaughtered through VNI, corneal reflex was observed for a mean time of 96.5 s (SD 4.3, range 26-164 s). The findings of this study highlight major concerns regarding the methods used for donkey slaughter in the Upper East region in Ghana, particularly regarding aversive ante-mortem handling and prolonged time to loss of consciousness during VNI and ineffective BFT in inducing unconsciousness by concussion.
... Working equids support millions of low-and middle-income households worldwide, often being a central source of income and playing a key role in the wider community through their use in transport, agriculture, domestic support and supply chains (Fernando & Starkey 2004;Sturgeon 2021;Grace et al. 2022). Of all the African nations, Ethiopia has the highest number of equids (Food and Agriculture Organisation [FAO] 2021; Norris et al. 2021), where over 12 million are estimated to be used for transport and other draught or pack work (Central Statistical Agency [CSA] 2020; Geiger et al. 2020). ...
Working equids support the livelihoods of millions of low-income households worldwide and face several welfare challenges. Although equipment-related wounds are common, little is known about specific risk factors. This cross-sectional study surveyed equids used for cart-work in three Ethiopian towns. Number, size, severity and location of wounds were recorded for each animal, as well as work equipment characteristics and indicators of equipment fit and assembly. Questionnaires were conducted with each cart-driver focusing on equipment practices and attitudes. Logistic regression models were generated to investigate associations between equipment-related wounds (outcome) and equipment, work, driver and animal-related factors (predictors). In total, 369 equids and cart-drivers were surveyed. The prevalence of equipment-related wounds was 72.6% (268/369) with girth wounds being the predominant wound type in horses (50%; 122/244) while donkeys had predominantly shaft-related wounds (59%; 72/122). Donkeys were two times more likely to have equipment-related wounds than horses. The presence of equipment-related wounds was associated with factors such as previously having wounds, inadequate collar positioning and using purchased equipment compared to partly home-made equipment. Characteristics of specific equipment components were also associated with certain wound types, such as narrow saddle pressure points and saddle wounds. Equipment-related wounds are highly prevalent in working equids, representing a serious welfare concern. Factors relating to equipment design, fit and assembly were associated with the presence of wounds. Importantly, species differences require tailoring of preventive approaches amongst working equids. A better understanding of work equipment should therefore be promoted as part of wound prevention and animal welfare strategies.
... Interestingly, the global number of donkeys has been rising by 1% annually since the 1960's, with the largest increases and reductions being observed in sub-Saharan Africa and Eastern Europe, respectively. This trend indicates that the changes in donkey census sizes are influenced by a variety of socio-economic factors which vary by nation and region [29]. A global survey of the mtDNA variability is useful to map the worldwide distribution of diversity, and to identify hotspots of variations and evolutionary relationships between populations of different geographical areas. ...
Donkeys (Equus asinus) have been used extensively in agriculture and transportations since their domestication, ca. 5000–7000 years ago, but the increased mechanization of the last century has largely spoiled their role as burden animals, particularly in developed countries. Consequently, donkey breeds and population sizes have been declining for decades, and the diversity contributed by autochthonous gene pools has been eroded. Here, we examined coding-region data extracted from 164 complete mitogenomes and 1392 donkey mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control-region sequences to (i) assess worldwide diversity, (ii) evaluate geographical patterns of variation, and (iii) provide a new nomenclature of mtDNA haplogroups. The topology of the Maximum Parsimony tree confirmed the two previously identified major clades, i.e. Clades 1 and 2, but also highlighted the occurrence of a deep-diverging lineage within Clade 2 that left a marginal trace in modern donkeys. Thanks to the identification of stable and highly diagnostic coding-region mutational motifs, the two lineages were renamed as haplogroup A and haplogroup B, respectively, to harmonize clade nomenclature with the standard currently adopted for other livestock species. Control-region diversity and population expansion metrics varied considerably between geographical areas but confirmed North-eastern Africa as the likely domestication center. The patterns of geographical distribution of variation analyzed through phylogenetic networks and AMOVA confirmed the co-occurrence of both haplogroups in all sampled populations, while differences at the regional level point to the joint effects of demography, past human migrations and trade following the spread of donkeys out of the domestication center. Despite the strong decline that donkey populations have undergone for decades in many areas of the world, the sizeable mtDNA variability we scored, and the possible identification of a new early radiating lineage further stress the need for an extensive and large-scale characterization of donkey nuclear genome diversity to identify hotspots of variation and aid the conservation of local breeds worldwide.
... There has been a 26% increase in the number of donkeys worldwide from 1997 to 2022, and the current estimate of the world donkey population is 51.7 million [1]. Asia and Africa are the two continents with the largest number of donkeys, and the top five countries are Ethiopia, Sudan, Chad, China, and Burkina Faso, each with over 1 million donkeys in stock [2]. ...
Simple Summary
Donkeys play crucial roles in agriculture and human livelihoods globally. Reproductive disorders in donkeys pose significant challenges to their health and well-being. While donkeys share many similarities with horses, specific aspects of donkey disorders remain poorly understood. Knowledge about reproductive disorders of donkeys is important for accurate diagnosis and effective treatment for these animals. This review aims to provide a brief update on reproductive disorders of donkeys including common infectious and non-infectious causes for infertility and pregnancy loss. Understanding reproductive health in donkeys plays a crucial role in enhancing the welfare status of donkeys and decreasing associated economic loss.
Abstract
Reproductive disorders in donkeys present a significant challenge to their health and welfare, impacting their roles in agriculture, conservation, and companionship. With the development of large-scale donkey farming in recent years, reproductive disorders have become a limiting factor for the expansion of the donkey population. In general, donkeys suffer from a similar array of diseases like horses, but little is known about the specificities of donkey reproductive disorders. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the pathogenesis, distribution, presentation, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of a diverse array of reproductive disorders affecting donkeys. There are similar infectious and non-infectious causes for infertility and pregnancy loss in jennies compared with mares, but a difference in disease susceptibility does exist, which may be attributed to genetic influence, pathogen specificity, the environment, and reproductive management practices. Diagnostic and treatment plans need to be tailored towards the particularities of donkey reproductive disorders to increase donkey populations and to enhance the standard of care for this species. Enhancing reproductive health in donkeys not only ensures their sustainable use but also promotes their welfare and longevity in diverse human–animal interactions.
... Harem [23,24,39,40] Resource Defense Polygyny/ Multi-Male And Polygyny/ Single-Male [23,24,39,40] Unstable dominance hierarchy, but there is a stable "dyad pairing" between mother and foal [23,24,39,40] Varies between arid environments and mild environments [35] Found globally with Ethiopia, China, and Mexico having the largest population [41] Somali wild ass Equus africanus somaliensis [38] Same as above * Same as above * Same as above * Same as above [35] Denkelia region of Eritrea, the Danakil Desert and the Awash River Valley in the Afar region of north-eastern Ethiopia, western Djibouti, and into the Ogaden region of eastern Ethiopia. In Somalia, they ranged from Meit and Erigavo in the north to the Nugaal Valley, and as far south as the Shebele River [35] Asiatic Wild Ass E. hemionus ...
Simple Summary
Beginning with Darwin, scientists have long considered the reasons for why some species but not others were domesticated. For example, of the equid species, horses and asses, but not the zebra, were domesticated. Many reasons for the ‘domesticability’ of mammalian species have been proposed (e.g., diet, social organization, response to humans). However, none of these traits have been subjected to empirical investigation. Here, we review past proposals for several domesticability traits and use a novel quantitative and evolutionary analysis to evaluate the explanatory power of these traits for domestication. For hoofed mammals, a heightened physiological response to humans, modeled as vulnerability to capture myopathy, emerged as the only significant obstacle to domestication. This is consistent with the reconstructed evolution of capture myopathy in ungulates, especially equids, and the prehistory of predation on equids, which shows that ancestral horses lost the vulnerability to capture myopathy consequent to a reduction in predation pressure on horses. Zebras, however, retained the vulnerability to capture myopathy as an adaptation to persistent high predation pressure, which would have impeded their domestication. Our results point to the importance of considering an animal’s behavior and biology as either an impediment or facilitator of domestication or developing a human-animal symbiotic relationship.
Abstract
Since Darwin, many evolutionary and behavioral researchers have considered the role of phenotypic traits that favor the domestication of nonhuman animals. Among such proposed traits are a species’ social structure, level of intra- and interspecific agonistic interactions, sociosexual behaviors, parental strategies, reaction to humans, habitat preference, dietary habits, developmental trajectories, and utility to humans. However, little to no comparative phylogenetic evidence exists concerning the importance of these attributes for the domestication of animals. Moreover, rather than considering domestication as a dichotomous event (non-domesticated vs. domesticated), humans and their potential domesticates encountered numerous socioecological challenges/obstacles during the domestication process before reaching the stage of full domestication. The present study explored the influence of adult body mass, gregariousness, dietary breadth, and reaction to humans on the domestication process of ungulates. The phylogenetic comparative model revealed that capture myopathy (CM), as a proxy for reaction to humans, negatively and significantly influenced the domestication process. The present paper also explored the evolution of CM in equine species in response to the presence of large carnivoran predators during the Pleistocene. Ecologies that preserved most of the large carnivoran predators of equine species also featured more equine taxa with CM (e.g., zebras), which were thus less suitable for domestication.
