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Global cycle of metals Loss flows include emissions to the environment, non-functionally recycled metals ending up in other material flows and flows to waste disposal facilities (landfills, slags and tailings storage facilities). Figure adapted with permission from ref. ¹⁶, American Chemical Society.
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The consumption of most metals continues to rise following ever-increasing population growth, affluence and technological development. Sustainability considerations urge greater resource efficiency and retention of metals in the economy. We model the fate of a yearly cohort of 61 extracted metals over time and identify where losses are expected to...
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Gold mining activities in Padesa Village are carried out traditionally, namely with simple and relatively inexpensive techniques using traditional tools and the process of binding gold from the ground using mercury. The mercury residue in the waters of the village of Padesa is 0,002 mg/L anda the average mercury content in yhe waste reservoir is 0,...
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... For example, depletion of metals from sources that are not considered mineral resources within the time frame of the study, metals that are incorporated in products or wastes (that are not currently receiving treatment for recovery, but may serve as source for the recovery of metals in the future), and metals lost as emissions that may in the future form a new source of extraction, should be differentiated from truly dissipative emissions, i.e., emissions that result in present and future loss of accessibility to the resource in question [75,76]. To that end, methodologies and indicators have been proposed to estimate and incorporate into LCA the true dissipative losses of metals [75,77,78], with, for example, Ag exhibiting higher dissipation [75,78], and marginally lower lifecycle [79], compared to Cu. Insights from this type of analysis can be used to generate both midpoint and endpoint indicators [78,80], which can be used to improve the current method of calculating minerals' and metals' resource depletion impacts in Life Cycle Impact Assessment methodologies. In the case study examined here on metal NNP, the results on resource depletion (Fig. 10) are in agreement with the findings on comparative metal dissipation rates from literature. ...
... In addition, many potential sources of metal stocks are held in use for extended periods (Haas et al., 2015;Watari et al., 2021a) and technological requirements for materials constantly evolve (Langkau and Tercero Espinoza, 2018), increasing the demand for mined raw materials. On the other hand, significant barriers remain in increasing collection rates and reducing recycling losses to reduce the amount of metals lost during each usage cycle (Charpentier Poncelet et al., 2022;Reuter et al., 2019). ...
This paper explores the adoption of Circular Economy (CE) practices in the mining sector. Large-scale mining is essential for global material supply and the energy transition but poses significant environmental challenges. Adopting CE strategies and practices can help mitigate these challenges by reducing waste, improving resource efficiency, and minimising environmental impacts. However, existing CE frameworks are focused on downstream value chain segments and lack crucial conceptual elements to guide CE adoption in upstream industries like mining. The study advances the literature on CE, responsible sourcing of minerals and sustainable raw material extraction by identifying three crucial conceptual elements missing from existing CE frameworks: (1) a clear communication of the goal and boundary of the industrial production system that the adoption of CE practices is targeting; (2) an identification of the source and type of inputs used by the system; and (3) a consideration of the resource state of these inputs and the subsequent structural wastes generated from them. These new conceptual elements allow for a system-level analysis of CE adoption tailored to the context of the mining industry. Using the case of Chile, the study demonstrates how this new conceptual approach can be applied to map existing CE practices and strategies used in the mining sector. Findings reveal that Chilean copper and lithium mining companies are successfully adopting CE practices, such as using seawater in ore processing, remining and repurposing tailings, and remanufacturing mining machinery. This shows that there is significant potential for the mining industry to adopt CE thinking. However, the case study also highlights prevalent tendencies of a lack of systems thinking and additionality in the design of CE practices, which present significant challenges for the sector to adopt CE practices at scale.
... Obsolete steel stocks will never entirely equal the amount of scrap available for recycling due to in-use dissipation, material dilution, techno-economic restraints in recovering material, iron lost to slag in remelting, and similar thermodynamic constraints [43,44]. Yet, even though EOL-RRs can never reach complete material recovery, they can still be vastly improved through better material sorting and material recollection, reductions in landfilling, or information storage about the materials used in buildings [45,46]. These improvements are a prerequisite to establishing closed material loops and a cornerstone of the EU's Circular Economy Action Plan [47]. ...
This review studies the availability of post-consumer steel scrap in Europe until 2050. We introduce the indicator potentially available domestic post-consumer scrap (PADPS), which measures the amount of (steel) scrap from obsolete products available for recycling prior to trade in scrap. We analyze material flow studies from the academic literature and international organizations to quantify this indicator. The studies suggest a rising trend of post-consumer scrap amounts until a saturation level is reached and the expected yearly steel product obsolescence of the system stabilizes. Between 2010 and 2050, PADPS is expected to rise by approximately 1.6% per year. We identify in-use steel stocks, recycling rates, and product lifetimes as the three commonly gauged factors determining PADPS. While recycling rates and product lifetimes range comparatively close in the studies, the estimation of in-use stocks displays much greater variation and introduces an element of uncertainty in the estimation of post-consumer scrap amounts that can be expected in the coming decades.
... For many metals, the largest share of cumulative losses over time is due to waste management and recycling. Charpentier Poncelet et al. (2022) found that for 43 metals, these two life-cycle phases account for approximately 85% of the losses of ferrous metals, 80% for precious metals, 71% for non-ferrous metals, and 40% for specialty metals. Metals, undergoing multiple life cycles due to relatively efficient collection and recycling channels, are still mostly lost to waste management over time, albeit over longer periods (for example, aluminum, copper, gold, iron, and platinum). ...
... Losses to recycling processes are the largest for metals widely used in ferrous alloys (e.g., chromium, iron, manganese, molybdenum, and niobium), aluminum and zinc, half of which is used to protect steel from corrosion. The losses are greatest for ferrous metals (26% of cumulative losses) and smaller among non-ferrous (8%), precious (2%), and specialty metals (0,4%) (Charpentier Poncelet, et al., 2022). ...
... Charpentier Poncelet et al. (2022) provide data on both losses during collection and during recycling, corresponding to two areas where policymakers could create impact: ...
Every three years, the European Commission publishes a list of critical raw materials (CRMs), to guide efforts in improving supply chain resilience, including intra-EU extraction and increased material recovery. However, increasing recovery rates for all 34 CRMs across the EU is unfeasible in the short term. To address this challenge, this paper proposes a pragmatic, demand-driven methodology for prioritizing CRM recovery, focusing on actionable and broadly applicable criteria. Unlike traditional approaches based on waste supply or future consumer demand, this methodology includes current
industrial demand for primary CRMs that could be replaced by secondary CRMs. This creates a market pull for secondary CRMs, increasing economic viability of recovery efforts. As a first step, CRMs are assessed for recycling feasibility and industrial demand. The result is a selection of CRMs emerging as potential targets to increase recovery. In a second step, put-on-market data for product categories of interest is combined with composition data of the selected CRMs, as researched in the FutuRaM project, to identify future urban mining potential. This approach ensures that waste policies and recovery strategies are driven by industrial needs, encouraging CRM-specific recycling technologies,
product-specific collection schemes, and efficient urban mining aligned with market priorities.
... Improved public education and the development of better supply chains are necessary to enhance the recycling process and ensure that e-waste reaches recycling facilities in a condition suitable for metal recovery. 194 ...
The growing issue of electronic waste (E-waste), driven by the exponential growth in electronic device usage, presents significant environmental and economic challenges. E-waste production has surged, increasing by approximately 2 million metric tonnes (Mt) annually, reaching 60 Mt in 2023, with projections suggesting it will exceed 70 Mt by 2030. Despite China, the USA, and India being the top E-waste producers, their recycling rates remain critically low at 16%, 15%, and 1%, respectively. E-waste contains valuable metals, such as gold (Au), silver (Ag), and copper (Cu), which comprise around 60% of its composition. However, only 17.4% of the global E-waste was appropriately recycled in 2023. This review discusses the latest data on E-waste, evaluates current metal recovery methods, and emphasizes the urgency of sustainable solutions to mitigate environmental hazards and promote a circular economy. The paper also covers case studies highlighting challenges and potential strategies to enhance metal recovery efficiency, contributing significantly to global sustainability efforts and waste management
... Some other technological advancements in the production of virgin iron, such as renewable hydrogen to produce DRI (Boretti, 2023), also lead to a reduction of CO 2 emissions, but natural resource use is not reduced. Ferrous metal, the most used metal and most recyclable metal with a long lifetime worldwide demonstrates the importance of recycling (Charpentier Poncelet et al., 2022). The recycling strategy emphasizes the repeated use of materials to minimize the extraction of new natural resources on the earth (Graedel et al., 2011a). ...
... To evaluate the status of metal recycling, the recycled content and end-of-life recycling rate (EoL-RR) are regarded as key metrics (Reck and Graedel, 2012). EoL-RR has been used to evaluate the material recoverability in Japan (Daigo et al., 2015), EU-27 (Panasiuk, 2019), and globally (Charpentier Poncelet et al., 2022). Recycled content describes the portion of scrap, which shares the same calculation with RIR (Graedel et al., 2011a). ...
To promote sustainable iron and steel production and consumption, maximizing scrap utilization is crucial. However, the restrictions and their impacts on promoting steel recycling are unclear. This paper aims to develop a methodology to identify main factors hindering steel recycling promotion in various countries. We developed a methodology based on material flow analysis and multiregional input-output analysis to quantify the impacts of restrictions from scrap unavailability and contamination, portfolio of steelmaking facilities, and demand for high-quality steel on promoting steel recycling. Results revealed significant variation in steel recycling performance across 25 countries, with recycling input rates ranging from 8 % to 99 %, primarily restricted by the demand for high-grade steel in 20 countries. Our findings highlight the diverse challenges and opportunities for promoting steel recycling across countries, through promoting scrap recovery, constructing new infrastructure for Electric Arc Furnaces (EAFs), and upgrading the EAFs to produce flat steel products exclusively with scrap.
... Elements on Earth are of fundamental importance to human production, livelihood, and ecological health (Charpentier et al., 2022). Unlike organic molecules which transform during biogeochemical cycles, metallic elements are stable and persistent, and thus serve as ideal indicators of the elemental inheritance by organisms and ecosystems commencing from the Earth at its origin (Hawkings et al., 2020;Schwerdtfeger et al., 2020). ...
... However, under the long-term selection pressure from toxic metals, certain bacteria would have evolved mechanisms called metal resistance genes (MRGs), enabling them to cope with high concentrations of toxic metals (Xu et al., 2022). In fact, metals are main actors in the biological world (Charpentier et al., 2022). Increasing concern is expanding toward the distribution of elements in biological systems in life sciences, including the global analysis of the entirety of elemental species inside a cell or tissue using methods of biological community analysis, yet the current knowledge about the inheritance of metals or nonmetals from Earth to ecosystems is still very poor (Walch et al., 2022;Xu et al., 2022;Zhong et al., 2020). ...
Elements are the indelible imprint left by the Earth on rivers and life entities. Here, we unveil the evident inheritance of persistent elements, from the Earth's upper continental crust, through the Yellow River, to the associated life entities along a 5,200 km continuum of the Mother River of the Chinese nation. In particular, we confirm the coherence of “metal community” composed of more than 60 detected metallic elements throughout water, suspended particulate matter, and sediment in the river, and further extend such elemental correlations to fish species and even the tissues in human body. Our study also reveals an interesting fact that media‐specific metal abundance occurs in a persistent inverse order with metal toxicity, and microbial cells in the river tend to establish their own self‐defense systems against toxic metals through hosting higher‐level resistance genes. These findings not only stress the human needs for integrated trace element provision, but also highlight the fundamental importance of elemental coherence in the river‐coordinated Earth‐life systems for establishing drinking water and dietary standards that benefit ecological and human health.
... (16) Stainless steel recycling to create specific alloys. (17) Pyrometallurgical battery recycling. (18) Hydrometallurgical battery recycling creating precursor materials, also linked to other modules of the simulation model (for LiMO2 and LFP batteries). ...
... The simulationbased approach provides the solution missing in the usual analysis of the CE, emphasized by Lazarevic and Valve [16]. This highlights that high-profile publications circulated to European policymakers emphasize closed loops but largely ignore the demonstrated losses over the lifetime of metals [17]. Furthermore, Reuter et al. [18] provides a critical discussion of a CE, arguing that a CE is sold as an environmental messiah, a stimulator of the economy, and a creator of jobs by its promoters, of which the Ellen MacArthur Foundation (EMF) is the most influential [19], forgetting to mention the second law of thermodynamic (2LT) losses. ...
Modules (or parts) of a car are a complex functional material combination used to deliver a specified task for a car. Recovering all materials, energy, etc., into high-grade materials at their end of life (EoL) is impossible. This is dictated by the second law of thermodynamics (2LT) and thence economics. Thus, recyclability cannot be conducted with simplistic mass-based approaches void of thermodynamic considerations. We apply, in this paper, a process simulation model to estimate the true recyclability of various SEAT (Volkswagen Group) car parts within the EU H2020 TREASURE project. This simulation model is developed with 190 reactors and over 310 feed components with over 1000 reaction species in the 880 streams of the flowsheet. The uniqueness of the work in this paper is to apply the full material declaration (FMD) and bill of materials (BOM) of all 310 materials in the parts as a feed to the process simulation model to show the parts' true recycla-bility. We classified all parts into categories, i.e., copper-rich, steel-rich and plastic-rich, to maximally recover metals at the desired material quality, as well as energy. Recyclability is understood to create high-grade products that can be applied with the same functional quality in these parts. In addition, disassembly strategies and related possible redesign show how much recyclability can be improved. Process simulation permits the creation of alloys, phases, materials, etc., at a desired quality. The strength of the simulation permits any feed from any End-of-Life part to be analyzed, as long as the FMD and BOM are available. This is analogous to any mineral and metallurgical engineering process simulation for which the full mineralogy must be available to analyze and/or design flowsheets. This paper delivers a wealth of data for various parts as well as the ultimate recovery of materials, elements, and energy. The results show clearly that there is no one single recycling rate for elements, materials, and alloys. It is in fact a function of the complexity and material combinations within the parts. The fact that we use a thermochemical-based process simulator with full compositional detail for the considered parts means full energy balances as well as exergy dissipation can be evaluated. This means that we can also evaluate which parts, due complex mixtures of plastics, are best processed for energy recovery or are best for material and metal recovery, with thermochemistry, reactor technology and integrated flowsheets being the basis.
... A comprehensive consideration of these aspects offers a more accurate depiction of element demand throughout the energy transition. In a work examining materials usage, a recent study presented the fate of 61 metals and analyzed their lifecycles, indicating where losses may occur (Charpentier Poncelet et al., 2022). Other works have estimated, for example, future global demand for a single element such as copper (Klose and Pauliuk, 2023). ...
... This outcome is especially important for maintaining a steady supply chain for technologies that rely heavily on tellurium. Additionally, the detailed calculations indicate that the secondary supply of tellurium will be insignificant by 2050, as the current recycling rates of tellurium at 1 % (Charpentier Poncelet et al., 2022) that expected not to change till 2050 (Liang et al., 2023). It suggests that the primary sources of tellurium will be the main contributors to its supply in the future. ...
... Sustainable Production and Consumption 51 (2024) 345-358 Additionally, according to IEA (IEA, 2021a), it can be seen that there is an increase in demand between 2030 and 2040 ( Fig. 6 c), which is attributed to the higher rate of installed capacity of PV technology compared to other years. With a current indium recycling rate of 5 % (Charpentier Poncelet et al., 2022), the contribution of secondary supply from recycling end of life products is projected to constitute <1 % of the cumulative demand for indium by the year 2050. The primary drivers of cobalt consumption are anticipated to be the transportation sector (EV), with >95 % annual demand in 2050 across all scenarios, followed by energy storage applications (Fig. 7). ...
Several proposed technologies (e.g., renewables and carbon capture and storage (CCS)) to reduce GHG emissions face significant challenges like accessing critical raw materials. This study assesses the demand for 29 mineral elements in technologies. A dynamic material flow analysis model was applied to examine five global climate change mitigation scenarios to 2050. The scenarios selected are the Net Zero Emission (NZE), 1.5 °C, Announced Pledges (AP) and Stated Policy (STEP) for the year 2022, and the Sustainable Development (SD) for the year 2021. The results show that demand for tellurium will increase and cumulatively exceed current reserves in the AP, SD, NZE and 1.5 °C scenarios from 2022 to 2050, and demand for indium and cobalt will exceed reserves in NZE and 1.5 °C scenarios. In the STEP scenario, elements will not face shortages. The findings indicate that specific technology choices, such as the high use of thin-film solar photovoltaic (PV), can significantly impact demand for particular elements like tellurium. The results demonstrate that the selection of the technology and scenario for GHG mitigation considerably impacts element consumption. The novelty of this work consists of its supply-efficient approach to the element demand for technology in different energy sectors including in the energy generation, distribution, storage, and consumption sectors in each recent scenario. The results presented in this study could assist policymakers in the selection of technological solutions for climate change mitigation.
... In addition, many potential sources of metal stocks are held in use for long periods (Haas et al., 2015;Watari et al., 2021a) and technological requirements for materials constantly evolve (Langkau and Tercero Espinoza, 2018), increasing the demand for primary raw materials. On the other hand, significant barriers remain in increasing collection rates and reducing recycling losses to reduce the amount of metals lost during each usage cycle (Charpentier Poncelet et al., 2022;Reuter et al., 2019). ...
This paper explores the adoption of Circular Economy (CE) practices in the mining sector. Large-scale mining is essential for global material supply and the energy transition but poses significant environmental challenges. Adopting CE strategies and practices can help mitigate these challenges by reducing waste, improving resource efficiency, and minimising environmental impacts. However, existing CE frameworks are focused on downstream value chain segments and lack crucial conceptual elements to guide CE adoption in upstream industries like mining. The study advances the literature on CE, responsible sourcing of minerals and sustainable raw material extraction by identifying three crucial conceptual elements missing from existing CE frameworks: (1) a clear communication of the goal and boundary of the industrial production system that the adoption of CE practices is targeting; (2) an identification of the source and type of inputs used by the system; and (3) a consideration of the resource state of these inputs and the subsequent structural wastes generated from them. These new conceptual elements allows for a system-level analysis of CE adoption tailored to the context of the mining industry.Using the case of Chile, the study demonstrates how this new conceptual approach can be applied to map existing CE practices and strategies used in the mining sector. Findings reveal that Chilean mining companies are successfully adopting CE practices such as using seawater in ore processing, remining and repurposing tailings, and remanufacturing mining machinery. This shows that there is significant potential for the mining industry to adopt CE thinking. However, the case study also highlights prevalent tendencies of a lack of systems thinking and additionality in the design of CE practices, which present significant challenges for the sector to adopt CE practices at scale.
