| Genetic structure and diversity of ancient samples. a, UMAP analysis of n = 1,624 ancient and modern Scandinavian individuals, on the basis of the first 10 dimensions of MDS using identity-by-descent segments of imputed individuals. Large symbols indicate median coordinates for each group. b, Genetic diversity in major populations of the Scandinavian Viking Age. Plots next to the map show MDS analysis on the basis of a pairwise identity-by-state sharing matrix. Norway denotes all the sites from Norway. The scale is identical for all the plots.

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... (Fig. 2, Extended Data Figs. 2, 3, Supplementary Note 8), but with subtle differences among the groups that indicate complex fine-scale structure. For example, many Viking Age individuals from the island of Gotland cluster with Bronze Age individuals from the Baltic region, which indicates mobility across the Baltic Sea (Fig. 2, Extended Data Fig. 3). Using f 4 -statistics to contrast genetic affinities with steppe pastoralists and Neolithic farmers, we find that Viking Age individuals from Norway are distributed in a manner similar to that of earlier Iron Age individuals, whereas many Viking Age individuals from Sweden and Denmark show a greater affinity to Neolithic farmers from ...

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... nucleotide diversity (Supplementary Note 9) and variation in inferred ancestry on the basis of ChromoPainter results (Extended Data Fig. 6, Supplementary Note 11, Supplementary Fig. 11.13). We also visualized this diversity as the spread of individuals on a multidimensional scaling plot based on a pairwise identity-by-state sharing matrix (Fig. ...

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... fine-scale ancestry analyses of genomic data are consistent with patterns documented by historians and archaeologists (Figs. 3, 4, Supplementary Fig. 11.12): eastward movements mainly involved Swedish-like ancestry, whereas individuals with Norwegian-like ancestry travelled to Iceland, Greenland, Ireland and the Isle of Man. The first settlement in Iceland and Greenland also included individuals with North-Atlantic-like ancestry 18,19 . A Danish-like ancestry is ...