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4.2 Fungal dispersal units (spores). Drawn at different scales. Group outlined with a blue line: dry spores with rough surface. Group outlined with a green line: spores with appendages or associated with mucilage. Group outlined with a red line: radiate spores. a Aspergillus conidia; b Aspergillus conidia in chain; c fungal mycelia inside an airborne pollen grain; d two xylariaceous ascospores adhered on their flat side form a sphere minimizing air drag; e ascospore of the subterranean fungus Tuber mesentericum; f Pilobolus, a discharged sporangium just landed on a glass slide; g Ascobolus immersus (reported as Dasyobolus immerses) ascospore octade; h Pestalotiopsis conidia, i Oncopodiella sp. germinated conidia from stemflow rainwater; j Metschnikowia reukaufii yeast cells from floral honey; k Loramyces juncicola ascospore; l Pleospora scirpicola ascospore; m–n Alternaria sp. m with short rostrum and n with long rostrum; o–s Fusarium sp., o macroconidium, p microconidium, q mesoconidium, r mycelia and conidia on airborne plant debris, s chlamydospore; t Podospora fimicola; u Torula herbarum; v Urocystis spores surrounded by sterile cells that possibly aid wind dispersal; w Tetracladium conidium from streamwater foam; x Phragmidium mucronatum teliospore; y Aglaospora profusa ascospore; z Dendryphion nanum conidium from the burrows of earthworms; a’ Leptosphaeria maculans ascospore and b’ conidia of its anamorph, Phoma lingam; c’ Cordyceps militaris. d’ Cross-shaped conidia of Valdensinia heterodoxa turn to have a lacrymiform shape when discharged, which aerodynamically should make the conidium travel further. g, f, l, k, t, x, and c’ were redrawn after Ingold (Ingold 1971, 1978) and d’ after Zhao and Shamoun (2010)
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Successful and efficient dispersal of fungi is crucial to the survival of the fungi, balance of ecosystems and stability of biodiversities. Dispersal strategies of microfungi and other fungi are reviewed in detail based on the literature published in the last four decades. It covers the latest development of research on the dispersal process: liber...
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... Most fungi reported in Brazilian caves have specific features that guarantee their underground arrival and survival. Magyar et al. (2016) pointed out that factors such as spore size, shape, roughness, density, and electrostatics, as well as individual spore production, air viscosity, convection, stratification, wind, turbulence, near-ground wind gradients, atmospheric circulation patterns, lifestyle, and survival, may impact their dispersal and success in cave environments. In addition, nutrient availability, temperature, humidity, and the presence of other species can influence the diversity and abundance of fungi in underground environments (Martin-Pozas et al., 2022). ...
... Seasonal changes can also directly influence fungal propagule dispersion. In summer, for example, when the soil outside caves is heated by the sun, air bubbles carry a large number of spores and affect the abundance of spores produced by fungi (Magyar et al., 2016). The most frequent genera reported in the caves in Brazilian biomes corroborate the findings of Finlay (2002), who reported that spores with pigments resistant to desiccation and of the correct size and shape are dispersed over long distances. ...
Cave fungi represent a diverse array of species that underwent speciation beyond their subterranean confines, providing several benefits to the biosystems they inhabit. Caves are hotspots for diverse fungal species. Despite the large number of known caves in Brazil, a megadiverse country, only a few studies have assessed the mycobiota in the karstic ecosystem. Herein, we present a state-of-the-art bibliometric review of the cave fungi in Brazil discussing the past and ongoing research in the country and highlighting the important historical milestones and aspects of Brazilian speleomycology. Based on the data from 30 publications, only the mycobiota in 30 caves in four Brazilian biomes (Amazon, Atlantic Forest, Cerrado, and Caatinga) have been assessed to date. Moreover, 292 fungal genera belonging to six phyla (Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Basidiobolomycota, Chy-tridiomycota, Mucoromycota, and Mortierellomycota) have been recorded, and a few operational taxonomic units have been identified as Rozellomycota and Kickxellomycota. Sordariomycetes is the most representative class identified to date. Aspergillus and Penicillium are the most frequent genera detected in all surveyed caves. Cerrado biome accounts for the largest number of studies (18), both for inventoried caves and fungal communities, and 70% of fungal genera have been exclusively recorded in this biome. Nearly half of the cave fungi known worldwide are found in only 30 caves in Brazil (approximately 0.1% of the known caves in the country), emphasising the importance of Brazilian caves as reservoirs of overall biodiversity. Speleomycology focuses on this "invisible diversity," highlighting the necessity of cave conservation, even in megadiverse countries such as Brazil.
... Las formas asexuales tienen un importante papel en la sobrevivencia y dispersión de los hongos por su capacidad para producir una inmensa cantidad de propágulos (Magyar et al., 2016). En muchas especies la acumulación de esporas forma conglomerados cuya naturaleza polvosa favorece su diseminación por el viento hacia otros sustratos (Müller, 1979). ...
Antecedentes y Objetivos: México es el segundo centro de diversificación del género Quercus con cerca de 160 especies, de las cuales 60% son endémicas. Sin embargo, existe poca información sobre sus interacciones con hongos, como la riqueza de las especies de micromicetos asexuales (MA) lignícolas en restos de encinos. El presente estudio es una contribución al conocimiento de especies de MA que se desarrollan sobre madera y corteza en cinco especies de Quercus en el municipio Huixquilucan, Estado de México, México. Métodos: Se realizaron 15 muestreos durante 2018 y 2019, recolectando pedazos de madera y corteza, posteriormente depositadas sobre cámaras húmedas. Con los esporóforos detectados se realizaron preparaciones permanentes y semipermanentes, para su determinación taxonómica mediante el análisis de caracteres morfológicos. Los materiales de referencia se depositaron en el herbario XAL del Instituto de Ecología, A.C. en Xalapa, Veracruz, México. Resultados clave: Se determinaron 30 taxones de MA; 28 de ellos representan nuevos registros para el Estado de México y 13 lo son para México. Se detectaron 20 especies en madera, cinco en corteza y cinco en ambos sustratos. Conclusiones: Doce especies (40%) se reportan exclusivamente en restos lignícolas; se amplía el rango de hospederos en los 13 nuevos registros para México, así como para los MA lígnicolas en el país ((Q. laurina, Q. castanea, Q. rugosa, Q. crassipes y Q. deserticola).
... Air currents play a significant role in fungal spore transportation. With limited air movement and stagnant air, spore abundance increases, and dense vegetation efficiently enhances spore sedimentation, removing them from the air through impaction and reduced air current speed (Magyar et al., 2016). ...
Fungal non-pollen palynomorphs (fNPPs) are microscopic structures occurring in various sediments. In paleoecological studies, they can serve as reliable indicators of vegetation types, grazing activities, and human impact, enriching the interpretation of fossil data. This study explores the composition and taxonomic richness of fNPPs in 85 moss samples from a European lowland forest. We found rich fungal diversity, with 95 morphological types, predominantly saprotrophs, favoring specific substrates, like wood, decaying bark, herbaceous plant remains, litter, and freshwater habitats. Key taxa, such as type HdV-96A, and cf. Hypoxylon (EMA-24), were prevalent across different forest types, especially in deciduous forests. We identified two primary gradients of fNPP composition. The first axis delineated samples by taxonomic richness, Shannon index, and canopy openness, showing similarities among deciduous forests. The second axis ordered samples by the proportion of fNPPs, volume of stumps, coarse woody debris, and herbs pollen richness, highlighting their connections. Forest management intensity had minimal influence on fNPP composition, indicating consistent composition along both ordination axes. Forest type and herbs pollen richness, significantly affected the taxonomic richness and Shannon diversity of fNPPs. Deciduous forests exhibited higher fNPP richness, compared to coniferous forests, linked to increased herbs pollen richness. However, fNPPs decreased with increasing volume of stumps, coarse woody debris, and canopy openness, demonstrating the complexities of forest management’s influence on fungal diversity. This study pioneers fNPP investigation in an old-growth temperate forest ecosystem, emphasizing the interplay of forest characteristics, herbs diversity, and dead wood components in shaping their composition and richness. It also reveals differences in fNPP assemblages between deciduous and coniferous forests, underscoring the importance of forest type in shaping fungal diversity. These findings highlight the need for detailed studies on microhabitats, dead wood decomposition rates, and specific forest impacts to comprehensively understand forest ecosystem dynamics.
... Hyphae may indeed be more resistant to PDI than spores, depending on the nature and affinity of the PS to the target structures [56]. In the case of Fusarium, conidia are infectious forms, and the macroconidia are responsible for spreading the infection over long distances [57]. Infection begins when spores germinate and penetrate plant tissues through the roots without symptoms [58]. ...
Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) is an emerging therapeutic approach that can effectively inactivate diverse microbial forms, including vegetative forms and spores, while preserving host tissues and avoiding the development of resistance to the photosensitization procedure. This study evaluates the antifungal and sporicidal photodynamic activity of two water-soluble amphiphilic tetra- and octa-β-substituted zinc(II) phthalocyanine (ZnPc) dyes with dimethylaminopyridinium groups at the periphery (ZnPcs 1, 2) and their quaternized derivatives (ZnPcs 1a, 2a). Tetra(1, 1a)- and octa(2, 2a)-β-substituted zinc(II) phthalocyanines were prepared and assessed as photosensitizers (PSs) for their effects on Fusarium oxysporum conidia. Antimicrobial photoinactivation experiments were performed with each PS at 0.1, 1, 10, and 20 µM under white light irradiation at an irradiance of 135 mW·cm–2, for 60 min (light dose of 486 J·cm−2). High PDI efficiency was observed for PSs 1a, 2, and 2a (10 µM), corresponding to inactivation until the method’s detection limit. PS 1 (20 µM) also achieved a considerable reduction of >5 log10 in the concentration of viable conidia. The quaternized PSs (1a, 2a) showed better PDI performance than the non-quaternized ones (1, 2), even at the low concentration of 1 µM, and a light dose of 486 J·cm−2. These cationic phthalocyanines are potent photodynamic drugs for antifungal applications due to their ability to effectively inactivate resistant forms, like conidia, with low concentrations and reasonable energy doses.
... "Wet spores" are usually very tiny and show hydrophilic characteristics and disperse by attaching to water drops or get actively discharged with liquids into the air. "Dry spores" on the other hand are usually larger, sometimes many-celled, hydrophobic and disperse with air currents (Elbert et al., 2007;Magyar et al., 2016). ...
... Fungi have evolved different mechanisms to aid dispersal of their propagules [1]. The main dispersal mechanisms of fungal plant pathogens are wind and rain splash [1][2][3][4][5][6]. ...
... Fungi have evolved different mechanisms to aid dispersal of their propagules [1]. The main dispersal mechanisms of fungal plant pathogens are wind and rain splash [1][2][3][4][5][6]. Understanding dispersal mechanisms is important for limiting fungal propagule movement and reducing the spread of global diseases that threaten food security and plant survival [7]. ...
Botrytis cinerea causes gray mold disease of strawberry (Fragaria ×ananassa) and is a globally important pathogen that causes fruit rot both in the field and after harvest. Commercial strawberry production involves the use of plastic mulches made from non-degradable polyethylene (PE), with weedmat made from woven PE and soil-biodegradable plastic mulch (BDM) as emerging mulch technologies that may enhance sustainable production. Little is known regarding how these plastic mulches impact splash dispersal of B. cinerea conidia. The objective of this study was to investigate splash dispersal dynamics of B. cinerea when exposed to various plastic mulch surfaces. Mulch surface physical characteristics and conidial splash dispersal patterns were evaluated for the three mulches. Micrographs revealed different surface characteristics that have the potential to influence splash dispersal: PE had a flat, smooth surface, whereas weedmat had large ridges and BDM had an embossed surface. Both PE mulch and BDM were impermeable to water whereas weedmat was semi-permeable. Results generated using an enclosed rain simulator system showed that as the horizontal distance from the inoculum source increased, the number of splash dispersed B. cinerea conidia captured per plate decreased for all mulch treatments. More than 50% and approximately 80% of the total number of dispersed conidia were found on plates 10 and 16 cm away from the inoculum source across all treatments, respectively. A significant correlation between the total and germinated conidia on plates across all mulch treatments was detected (P<0.01). Irrespective of distance from the inoculum source, embossed BDM facilitated higher total and germinated splashed conidia (P<0.001) compared to PE mulch and weedmat (P = 0.43 and P = 0.23, respectively), indicating BDM’s or embossed film’s potential for enhancing B. cinerea inoculum availability in strawberry production under plasticulture. However, differences in conidial concentrations observed among treatments were low and may not be pathologically relevant.
... Freshwater fungi possess various adaptations that enhance dispersal of their propagules. Numerous factors 310 affect dispersal in a positive or negative manner (Magyar et al. 2016, Langenheder & Lindström 2019. Ingold (1971) outlined three steps with regards to dispersal of freshwater fungi emphasizing hyphomycetes: spore release, transport, and attachment (Rees & Jones 1984). ...
... Under favorable conditions, the newly germinated and colonized fungal populations will produce sexual or asexual structures, which release mature spores into the water body (Tsui et al. 2016). These three steps of dispersal have been previously described qualitatively and quantitatively (Hyde & Goh 2003, Magyar et al. 2016. Dispersal and attachment mechanisms have been previously observed and described through microscopy (Rees & Jones 1984, Jones 1994, Hyde & Goh 2003. ...
... Numerous biotic and abiotic factors are pivotal to the dispersal of fungi over long and short distances in both lotic and lentic systems (Goh & Hyde 1996a, Magyar et al. 2016, Langenheder & Lindström 2019 (Fig. 35). ...
Research into freshwater fungi has generated a wealth of information over the past decades with various published articles, i.e., reviews, books, and monographs. With the advancement of
methodologies used in freshwater fungal research, and numerous mycologists working on this ecological group, our knowledge progress and understanding of freshwater fungi, including novel
discoveries and new insights in the ecology of freshwater fungi, has advanced. With this enormous progress, it is timely that an updated account of freshwater fungi be compiled in one volume. Thus, this account is published to give a comprehensive overview of the different facets of freshwater fungal biology. It includes an updated classification scheme based on the latest taxonomic and phylogenetic analysis of freshwater fungal taxa, including their evolutionary history. The biology, diversity, and geographical distribution of higher and basal freshwater fungi are also discussed in the entries. A section on dispersal and adaptation of filamentous freshwater fungi is included in the present work. The ecological importance and role of fungi in the breakdown of wood in freshwater habitats, including their physiology, are discussed in detail. The biotechnological potential of freshwater fungi as producers of bioactive metabolites are reviewed, with methodologies in antimicrobial drug discovery. The present volume also provides an overview of different high throughput sequencing (HTS) platforms for freshwater fungal research highlighting their advantages and challenges, including recent studies of HTS in identification and quantification of fungal communities in freshwater habitats. The present volume also identifies the knowledge gaps and direction of future research in freshwater fungi.
... Wind may increase the dispersal distance of water-splashed conidia, although this has not been studied in the case of Lasiodiplodia species. Although it has not been documented, conidia of the pathogen could potentially be dispersed by insects, similarly to other conidia-producing fungi (Magyar et al., 2016). Birds, rodents and other small animals could potentially disperse the pathogen via infected fruits and seeds (nuts). ...
Abstract The EFSA Plant Health Panel performed a pest categorisation of Lasiodiplodia pseudotheobromae, a clearly defined fungus of the family Botryosphaeriaceae, which was first described in 2008 as a cryptic species within the L. theobromae complex. The pathogen affects a wide range of woody perennial crops and ornamental plants causing root rot, damping‐off, leaf spots, twig blight, cankers, stem‐end rot, gummosis, branch dieback and pre‐ and post‐harvest fruit rots. Lasiodiplodia pseudotheobromae is present in Africa, Asia, North and South America and Oceania and has also been reported from Spain with a restricted distribution. However, there is uncertainty on the status of the pathogen worldwide and in the EU because in the past, when molecular tools (particularly multigene phylogenetic analysis) were not available, the pathogen might have been misidentified as L. theobromae. Lasiodiplodia pseudotheobromae is not included in Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2019/2072 and there are no interceptions in the EU. Because of the very wide host range of the pathogen, this pest categorisation focused on those hosts for which there is robust evidence that the pathogen was formally identified by a combination of morphology, pathogenicity and multilocus sequence analysis. Plants for planting, including seeds, fresh fruits and bark and wood of host plants as well as soil and other plant‐growing media are the main pathways for the further entry of the pathogen into the EU. Host availability and climate suitability factors occurring in parts of the EU are favourable for the further establishment of the pathogen. In the area of its present distribution, including Spain, the pathogen has a direct impact on cultivated hosts. multilocus measures are available to prevent the further introduction and spread of the pathogen into the EU. Lasiodiplodia pseudotheobromae satisfies the criteria that are within the remit of EFSA to assess for this species to be regarded as potential Union quarantine pest.
... P. phocoena, being a protected cetacean among endangered species in the UK and EU, are abundant in British waters (Roberts et al., 2019). Magyar et al. (2016) explained that, through the "spiralling" process, suspended fungal propagules in flowing waters can be transported some distance (200-1000 m) before settling on leaves or other substrates at riverbanks or streambanks and eventually passively dispersed into the air. Fungal asexual spores of aquatic hyphomycetes have been found to use such dispersal pathways (Duarte et al., 2012;Magyar et al., 2016;Thomas et al., 1991). ...
... Magyar et al. (2016) explained that, through the "spiralling" process, suspended fungal propagules in flowing waters can be transported some distance (200-1000 m) before settling on leaves or other substrates at riverbanks or streambanks and eventually passively dispersed into the air. Fungal asexual spores of aquatic hyphomycetes have been found to use such dispersal pathways (Duarte et al., 2012;Magyar et al., 2016;Thomas et al., 1991). The River Severn and Bristol Channel are the possible habitats of P. phocoena nearest to Worcester and Lakeside. ...
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Alternaria is a pathogenic and allergenic fungus affecting 400 plant species and 334 million people globally. This study aimed at assessing the diversity of Alternaria species in airborne samples collected from closely located (7 km apart) and heterogeneous sites (rural, urban and unmanaged grassland) in Worcester and Lakeside, the UK. A secondary objective was to examine how the ITS1 subregion varies from ITS2 in Alternaria species diversity and composition. Airborne spores were collected using Burkard 7-day and multi-vial Cyclone samplers for the period 5 July 2016-9 October 2019. Air samples from the Cyclone were amplified using the ITS1and ITS2 subregions and sequenced using Illumina MiSeq platform whereas those from the Burkard sampler were identified and quantified using optical microscopy. Optical microscopy and eDNA revealed a high abundance of Alternaria in the rural, urban and unmanaged sites. ITS1 and ITS2 detected five and seven different Alternaria species at the three sampling sites, respectively. A. dactylidicola, A. metachromatica and A. infectoria were the most abundant. The rural, urban and unmanaged grassland sites had similar diversity (PERMANOVA) of the species due to similarity in land use and proximity of the sites. Overall, the study showed that heterogeneous and neighbouring sites with similar land uses can have similar Alternaria species. It also demonstrated that an eDNA approach can complement the classical optical microscopy method in providing more precise information on fungal species diversity in an environment for targeted management. Similar studies can be replicated for other allergenic and pathogenic fungi.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10453-022-09760-9.
... Fungi are present and prominent in all soils, and their fungal communities may have an extreme species richness (Taylor & Sinsabaugh 2015). Those fungi are dispersed through mycelial growth and more rapidly over larger distances via spores, which are dispersed principally by wind (Taylor & Sinsabaugh 2015), but also through insects and other animals (Magyar et al. 2016). Owing to their ability to produce a wide variety of extracellular enzymes, fungi are able to break down all types of organic matter and decompose soil components, thereby regulating the balance of carbon and nutrients (Žifčáková et al. 2016). ...
ABSTRACT The knowledge of the geographical distribution of fungi is essential to promote the understanding of global and national fungal diversity patterns. In this study, we provide a literature-based checklist of Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Talaromyces species recorded in the biomes of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest and the Brazilian Pampa. Only Penicillium digitatum was reported for the Pampa biome. For the Atlantic Forest, a total of 169 species (68 Aspergillus, 79 Penicillium, and 22 Talaromyces) are reported, of which 20 are typified with specimens from this biome, including the novel species Penicillium nordestinense (section Lanata-Divaricata) that is described in this study. Penicillium nordestinense is phylogenetically related to the invalidly described species Penicillium setosum, and this species is validated here. Soil was the most common substrate from where species were reported. Several reported species are well known in biotechnological processes. Penicilliopsis zonata and Sclerocleista ornata, species previously treated in Aspergillus, are recorded. This checklist reflects the limited knowledge of fungal species in tropical environments, such as the Brazilian Atlantic Forest and Pampa biomes. This information is a good framework for understanding the Brazilian diversity of Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Talaromyces and provides data for future fungal biogeographical studies in tropical environments.
