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This paper presents a railroad energy efficiency model used to estimate the fuel economies for classes of trains transporting various commodities. Comparable procedures are used to estimate truck and waterway fuel consumption. The results show that coal unit trains are 4.5–5.0 times more energy efficient than movements in the largest trucks allowed...
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Context 1
... to provide a holistic overview, the average fuel efficiencies of major commodity groups are presented next. In this part of the study, net/gross ratios and RTM/G values are estimated at the two-digit Standard Transportation Commodity Code (STCC) level (Table 6). As noted earlier, coal and ore shipments generate 722 and 668 RTM/G, respectively. ...Context 2
... calculations needed to determine the locomotive requirements of a train of loaded 143-ton gondola cars are illustrated in Table 6 for a 0.25% grade and a velocity of 25 mph. The illustrations are based a locomotive with 4,400 horsepower (hp) and 82% efficiency. ...Context 3
... on this assumption, a table of fuel efficiency factors is developed (Table 6.1) by taking the 2008 value from the EPA model (6.2 mpg) and attributing it to a five-axle tractor-semitrailer operating at a gross weight of approximately 60,000 pounds. ...Context 5
... coal trucks often operate in shuttle service and have limited backhaul opportunities, the empty/loaded ratio is assumed to be 1.0. Because of its greater weight (60 tons instead of 40 tons), the fuel efficiency of a coal truck is less than the fuel efficiency of the typical 80,000-lb tractor-semitrailer shown in Table 6.1 -i.e., 4.9 mpg versus 5.5 mpg. Based on this fuel consumption rate and the assumed empty/loaded ratio of 1.0, the average energy efficiency of a six-axle coal truck is 130 RTM/G. ...Citations
... Waterway transport is the cheapest mode of inland cargo transportation (Caris et al., 2014). It is also the most energy-efficient mode of transport (Tolliver et al., 2013) and the inland transport with the lowest CO 2 emissions per cargo transport (Feng et al., 2019). Inland water transportation is also an important driver of regional economic development (Dávid and Madudová, 2019). ...
South America has been developed from its coast to its hinterlands since the beginning of its Western colonization. However, to this point, no significant effort has been made to integrate its interior. Waterways transportation can be considered the most sustainable inland mode of transportation due to its low CO2 emissions per ton of cargo transport. With this in mind, this paper investigates the history, challenges and opportunities of the past proposals for the construction of the South America Waterway System (SAWS) connecting the La Plata, Amazon, and Orinoco river basins. It focuses on particular challenges of the proposed waterway. (i) a comparison between the deforestation surrounding existing road and waterway infrastructure in the Amazon, (ii) the large water level variation in the Amazon basin, (iii) and the alternatives for storing water to reduce the impacts of floods and droughts in the proposed waterway. We conclude that deforestation surrounding existing waterways is practically zero and that groundwater storage has an important role in storing water for the basin and reservoirs, a limited one. The SAWS can significantly foster South American integration, encourage sustainable extraction of natural resources in the region and help the conservation of the Amazon forest.
... Improving energy efficiency is one of the key tasks of the operation of railway rolling stock. Within this framework, models have been developed to assess fuel economy for classes of trains transporting various goods [7]. Reduced power consumption and travel time can be achieved through innovative operating modes and optimized solutions, including schedule adjustments [8]. ...
A method of indirect rationing of diesel fuel for special self-propelled rolling stock is presented, based on the identification of actual fuel consumption and controlled operating modes. Based on the results of test trips using automated accounting systems for operating modes and fuel consumption, the method allows us to assess reasonable volumes of fuel consumption in a specific section of the railway infrastructure. We show how the methods of identifying actual fuel consumption and operating modes can establish consumption rates of special self-propelled rolling stock without the use of automated fuel metering. The identification method is based on solving a multifactorial equation, the coefficients of which are determined in a program with statistical functions. To eliminate multicollinearity problems, the use of cluster analysis methods is proposed. Unlike traditional calculation methods, the method allows for the determination of the norming indicators in conditions of incomplete and partially incorrect data. The study was conducted using data on fuel consumption of special self-propelled rolling stock at a particular railway range and the relevant regulatory documents provided by Russian Railways. The results were obtained by applying the method to special self-propelled rolling stock used in the electrification and railway track departments of Russian Railways. The proposed method allows for simulation of the indicator of normalized fuel consumption with an accuracy not worse than 96%. Based on the obtained model of normalized fuel consumption, the method and parameters for identifying abnormal and unauthorized fuel overconsumption are shown. The criteria for identifying abnormal fuel overconsumption using the normalized standard deviation function were determined.
... Their research is an instrument to categorize the literature and identify trends and future research on intermodal freight transportation across modes, time horizons, geographical extensions, and simulation objectives. Some researchers focused on relations between sustainability and transportation by assessing the negative impacts of different transportation modes in freight systems (Beheshtian et al., 2018;de Miranda Pinto et al., 2018;Demir et al., 2015;Fan and Lei, 2017;Huang et al., 2016;Mostert et al., 2017;Swarts et al., 2012;Tolliver et al., 2013;Zhu et al., 2016). The discussion on sustainability and the selection of green freight modes like intermodal road-rail systems are still new and emerging issues in this field (Bask et al., 2017). ...
Sustainable freight transportation is a logistics approach that provides affordable services to consumers where environmental, economic, and social sustainability dimensions are concerned. Governments usually improve sustainability dimensions in freight transportation by imposing taxes on transportation systems. Therefore, they should extend their knowledge on interactions between sustainability dimensions and how their interventions affect each dimension. In this regard, we analyze competition between two freight transportation systems in the context of government intervention. These systems include road and intermodal road–rail transportation modes, where the latter is regarded as an environmentally sustainable mode. A sequential game is addressed to analyze the duopoly competition. In the upper level, a government, as a Stackelberg leader, imposes taxes on fuel usage based on environmental, economic, and social concerns. In the lower level, a Nash game is developed to analyze price competition in the transportation market. Our analyses reveal that: (a) Given a fixed level of the consumers' loyalty to their specific transportation systems, economic and social sustainability are consistent with each other, while they conflict with environmental sustainability. (b) Economic risks increase economic sustainability requested by the transportation systems. Such a relationship and the mentioned conflict between environmental and economic sustainability imply that a reduction of economic risks by the government indirectly contributes to environmental sustainability. (c) An increase in the consumers' loyalty simultaneously improves the three sustainability dimensions. (d) The energy efficiency improvements of the transportation systems may pose adverse environmental and social effects, called the rebound effects. Moreover, government intervention effectively eliminates such rebound effects. (e) Government support for the service enhancement of the intermodal system, combined with the national advertisement of this system, may exempt the government from subsidy payment.
... Typical truck and rail transport parameters can be found in Table 8.6. It should be noted that often a roundtrip cost calculation is required assuming a full tank on the first leg and empty on return, and the fuel economy in Table 8.6 takes this into account [59]. ...
... Table 8.7 shows indicative parameters for MGC and LGC useful for offshore transport calculations. Table 8.7 is specific [57]; (b) [56]; (c) [59]; (d) [49]; the rest are from [60]. to two LPG tankers: Gas Ray and Denver, but they are taken as representative of MGCs and LGCs respectively. Very Large Gas Carriers (VLGCs) are used to transport LPG and they could also transport ammonia [49], but they are not currently used for this purpose for two reasons: the lack of port infrastructure to accommodate the vessel at some ammonia trading ports, and because many current port storage tanks are not large enough to completely fill a VLGC thus creating tank ullage issues. ...
The cost of green ammonia is determined primarily by its production cost, but it is also influenced by the cost of distribution and storage. Production costs are a function of plant location, size, and whether the plant is islanded or semi-islanded, that is whether the power source is variable renewable energy (VRE) or grid electricity. Capital costs for a green ammonia plant consist of equipment for the production of hydrogen (electrolyzer) and nitrogen (air separation), ammonia synthesis (Haber–Bosch, compressors and separators) and storage. Operating costs are mainly due to power consumption. The electrolyzer dominates both capital and operating costs in the manufacture of green ammonia.
Ammonia is stored in either pressurized or refrigerated vessels with the latter preferred for large scale storage. Distribution of ammonia may involve several transport modes depending on the location of the production and consumption sites. Inland transport can involve pipelines, trains, and trucks, and offshore shipping is generally done with medium, large or very large gas carrier vessels with refrigerated tanks.
A case study to supply a fleet of 36 ultralarge container vessels (ULCVs) operating between the ports of Shanghai and Rotterdam is used to exemplify the combination of production, storage and transportation costs.
... Compared to roads, railways have several attractive advantages. Environmental benefits include energy efficiency, a reduction in pollution emissions, and a lower land use requirement (Tolliver et al. 2013, Borda-de-Agua et al. 2017. Economic benefits include high travel speeds and the capacity to transport large volumes of goods and people (Facanha and Horvath 2006, Uherek et al. 2010, Dulac 2013. ...
... Like roads, railways cause collisions with wildlife (van der Grift 1999), however the significance of this mortality is poorly described in the literature, with estimates of railway mortality available for only a few species of conservation concern in India (Joshi 2010, Palei et al. 2013, Europe (Boscagli 1987, Huber et al. 1998, Kaczensky et al. 2003 and North America (Gibeau and Herrero 1998, Benn and Herrero 2002, Waller and Servheen 2005, Hopkins et al. 2014). Attention to both direct and indirect effects of railways on wildlife is needed because the prevalence of railways is increasing around the world (Alexander 2012, Prater et al. 2013, Tolliver et al. 2013. ...
Human-modified landscapes can threaten the persistence of wildlife populations through the loss, fragmentation and degradation of habitat. Linear features such as roads and railways are a common cause of habitat alteration which can also threaten wildlife directly through collisions with vehicles. Although the adverse effects of roads on wildlife have been extensively studied and have resulted in widespread mitigation measures (e.g. fencing and highway crossing structures), far less attention has been paid to railways. This is unfortunate because the reliance on railway transport continues to grow in many regions of the world, along with the density of railway networks, the volume of goods transported, and the speeds with which trains travel. In addition, railways can have high rates of wildlife-train collisions, which can lessen population viability, particularly for wildlife species that have low reproductive rates, large home ranges, or small and declining populations. This situation has occurred for a population of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) in Canada’s Rocky Mountain Parks, for which the leading cause of recorded mortality is collisions with trains. To mitigate collision vulnerability for bears in the area, and potentially for other species and regions, one must understand the factors that contribute to bear-train collisions to identify the types of mitigation and locations where it could achieve the greatest benefits.
I examine causes of bear vulnerability to rail-associated mortality in three ways. First, I examined vegetation enhancement along the Canadian Pacific Railway that bisects Banff and Yoho National Parks. Specifically, I measured and compared the diversity, richness, abundance, productivity, and phenology of bear-attracting plants at the railway ballast, at the forest edge, and within the adjacent forest spanning an elevational gradient. Second, I investigated the spatiotemporal factors associated with railway selection by grizzly bears using GPS data from 27 collared bears. Specifically, I tested the influence of habitat, human-use, and topographical variables on locations where grizzly bears used the railway and where particular movement types occurred. Further, I determined whether locations of concentrated use and movement were correlated with locations of past bear-train strikes. In a third chapter, I investigated the potential for bears to be exposed to railway-based contaminants. Specifically, I measured the concentrations of metals and PAHs in two railway-associated foods that are known to attract bears; rail-side dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) and train-spilled grain. I analyzed hair samples to determine whether bears that used the railway, and four other anthropogenic features, had comparatively higher concentrations of heavy metals in their fur.
For vegetation enhancement, I found that the railway had higher species diversity, richness, total cover, and accelerated phenology of vegetation when compared to the adjacent forest. In addition, fruiting species at the railway had higher productivity, earlier ripening, and higher sugar content. Based on information from GPS collars, I found that bears demonstrated strong seasonality in railway use (spring and fall), which may correlate with the seasonal availability of bear-attracting plants that grow along the railway. Bears tended to use the railway in areas with lower landscape-scale habitat quality, where terrain was locally rugged, close to railway sidings (low-speed sections of track), and at intermediate distances from towns, highways, and trails. Among movement types, bears entered the railway where habitat productivity was higher, close to railway sidings, and in locations constrained by local rugged terrain. Bears demonstrated prolonged use of the railway (via continue movements) in areas where landscape-scale terrain was rugged. Step lengths were consistently shorter when bears were on versus off the railway. No aspect of use or movement predicted sites of higher mortality, but prolonged use of the railway (via continue movements) occurred in areas with lower rates of mortality. My analyses of contaminants revealed that railway-associated forage contained elevated levels of 10 heavy metals and 16 PAHs when compared to reference samples, with much higher contamination in train-spilled grain. However, mycotoxin contamination of grain occurred at very low levels. I found that male bears had higher metal concentrations in hair samples than females, but higher metal concentrations did not correlate with greater frequency of rail use. However, metal concentrations near the hair root were correlated with bear use of ski hills in the fall.
My results showed that the railway enhances vegetation that may attract bears and other wildlife; that bears use the railway both for foraging opportunities (natural or anthropogenic) and for travel through rugged terrain; and, that railway-associated foods (dandelion and train-spilled grain) contained elevated levels of metals and PAHs. Risk of strike associated with rail use by bears and other wildlife may be reduced by removing attractants, particularly in areas with high rates of past mortality or where rugged terrain constrains movement, and especially in spring and fall. Managers might compensate for attractant removal near the rail by enhancing the productivity of critical bear foods such as berry-producing shrubs, in safe areas via forest thinning or prescribed burns. Removal of attractants, especially grain, and regular maintenance and cleaning of areas of heightened contamination (e g. railway sidings and lubricating stations), may reduce contaminant exposure to wildlife who forage along railways. Wildlife-train collisions will likely increase as railway networks continue to grow. Understanding how railways influence bears and other wildlife, including causes of and mitigation for train strikes, will contribute to the conservation of grizzly bears in North America, and many other sensitive populations worldwide.
... Like roads, railways cause collisions with wildlife (van der Grift 1999); however, the significance of this mortality is poorly described in the literature, with estimates of railway mortality available for only a few species of conservation concern in India ( Joshi 2010, Palei et al. 2013), Europe ( Boscagli 1987, Huber et al. 1998, Kaczensky et al. 2003) and North America ( Gibeau and Herrero 1998, Benn and Herrero 2002, Waller and Servheen 2005, Hopkins et al. 2014). Attention to both direct and indirect effects of railways on wildlife is needed because the prevalence of railways is increasing around the world ( Alexander 2012, Prater et al. 2013, Tolliver et al. 2013). A fundamental ecological consequence of railways, as with many other kinds of linear features, is the suite of changes that occur in adjacent vegetation. ...
Vegetation enhancement along railways has not been well studied, despite high rates of mortality from train strikes across numerous species, including sensitive populations in protected areas. This situation describes grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) in the mountain parks of Canada, where train strikes have become the leading source of known mortality.We hypothesized that attraction by bears to railways occurs partly because of increases in the richness, diversity, cover, and maturation rate of plants consumed by bears relative to adjacent forest and that this effect may increase with elevation. We quantified and compared responses in plants used by bears to the railway (ballast), forest edge, and within adjacent forest for two growing seasons (May-October) at 19 locations spanning an elevational gradient in Banff and Yoho National Parks in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Overall, richness, diversity, and total cover of plants consumed by bears were greatest at the forest edge. On the forest edge or ballast, flowering rates of some species were over three times higher and fruit occurrence was up to five times higher than 50 m into the adjacent forest. Enhancement of berry productivity along rail edges increased with elevation. Buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis), an important regional pre-hibernation resource, had more fruit, faster ripening, and higher sugar content for shrubs located within 15 m of the rail than within surrounding interior forest. Our results demonstrate that railway edges can increase the quantity and quality of palatable vegetation resources of both native and introduced species, potentially increasing strike risk for bears and other wildlife. Potential mitigation of this risk could include removal of attractants along the rail, particularly at locations where other factors increase the risk of collisions, and creation of forest openings, either through natural processes or through forest modification that would provide forage in less risky habitats.
... Interviewees often mentioned rail as a cost effective and fuel efficient alternative to truck and barge transportation (Tolliver et al. 2013 ), but rail introduces more complexity into negotiations across the supply chain. Freight rail is privately owned and operated, and requires private sector, rather than public sector, investment. ...
The World Economic Forum (2015) rates food crises, extreme
weather and failure of infrastructure as top global risks in
2015. Around the world, regions are contending with extreme
weather, including drought, flooding and changes in growing
seasons. These extremes affect crops and pests, and may
disrupt agriculture and its supply chains, especially in the
second half of this century. This paper presents an example
of how transportation of agricultural products in the Upper
Mississippi River Valley region of the United States may be
impacted by, and respond to, a changing climate.
... According toFigure 1, comparing the year 1999 to 2012, there was a reduction of more than one liter of diesel to transport the same amount of TKU, corresponding to a gain of more than 21%. For a comparison basis, in the United States over 24 years gains in fuel efficiency were more than 61% (Tolliver; LU; BENSON, 2013), demonstrating the possibility of even greater gains for Brazilian railroads. In addition to the financial aspect, there is an environmental gain due to relatively lower carbon dioxide emissions to meet current production. ...
... According toFigure 1, comparing the year 1999 to 2012, there was a reduction of more than one liter of diesel to transport the same amount of TKU, corresponding to a gain of more than 21%. For a comparison basis, in the United States over 24 years gains in fuel efficiency were more than 61% (Tolliver; LU; BENSON, 2013), demonstrating the possibility of even greater gains for Brazilian railroads. In addition to the financial aspect, there is an environmental gain due to relatively lower carbon dioxide emissions to meet current production. ...
... According toFigure 1, comparing the year 1999 to 2012, there was a reduction of more than one liter of diesel to transport the same amount of TKU, corresponding to a gain of more than 21%. For a comparison basis, in the United States over 24 years gains in fuel efficiency were more than 61% (Tolliver; LU; BENSON, 2013), demonstrating the possibility of even greater gains for Brazilian railroads. In addition to the financial aspect, there is an environmental gain due to relatively lower carbon dioxide emissions to meet current production. ...
Resumo: Railway companies are continually seeking fuel efficiency enhancements Fuel is responsible for a large percentage of operational costs,and the burning of fuel by diesel-engine locomotives causes significant environment impacts. In order to improve fuel efficiency it is very important to understand all aspects that can impact negatively on fuel consumption. This paper's objective is to evaluate and measure one of those impacts – the aging fleet. The influence of this factor on locomotive fuel consumption was studied in a railway company in Brazil in 2010, 2011 and 2012 using the paired-t test. The alternative hypothesis stated that the mean difference of previous-year consumption and subsequent-year consumption was greater than zero. Through analyzing statistical test results, it is possible to conclude that an aging fleet has a significant impact on locomotive fuel consumption in the absence of a robust maintenance program
... According toFigure 1, comparing the year 1999 to 2012, there was a reduction of more than one liter of diesel to transport the same amount of TKU, corresponding to a gain of more than 21%. For a comparison basis, in the United States over 24 years gains in fuel efficiency were more than 61% (Tolliver; LU; BENSON, 2013), demonstrating the possibility of even greater gains for Brazilian railroads. In addition to the financial aspect, there is an environmental gain due to relatively lower carbon dioxide emissions to meet current production. ...
... According toFigure 1, comparing the year 1999 to 2012, there was a reduction of more than one liter of diesel to transport the same amount of TKU, corresponding to a gain of more than 21%. For a comparison basis, in the United States over 24 years gains in fuel efficiency were more than 61% (Tolliver; LU; BENSON, 2013), demonstrating the possibility of even greater gains for Brazilian railroads. In addition to the financial aspect, there is an environmental gain due to relatively lower carbon dioxide emissions to meet current production. ...
... According toFigure 1, comparing the year 1999 to 2012, there was a reduction of more than one liter of diesel to transport the same amount of TKU, corresponding to a gain of more than 21%. For a comparison basis, in the United States over 24 years gains in fuel efficiency were more than 61% (Tolliver; LU; BENSON, 2013), demonstrating the possibility of even greater gains for Brazilian railroads. In addition to the financial aspect, there is an environmental gain due to relatively lower carbon dioxide emissions to meet current production. ...
... In the United States, however, only 2.2% of the fleet consists of these types of trailers (US DOT, 2000). The double trailer configuration can make the rig more fuel and payload efficient if loaded and operated properly (Tolliver et al., 2013). ...
Truck transportation plays a significant role in moving products from agricultural regions in Brazil's Center-West to port cities in the Southeast. The Brazilian truck fleet is estimated at 2, 113, 417 vehicles. As of 2014, 61.1% of the total tonnage of goods were transported by road. After harvest, soybeans are first transported to a facility where they are cleaned, dried, and stored. The characteristics of the trucks used for this initial transfer can vary by operation. Information regarding the truck model, trailer configuration, trailer material, trailer condition, and loading practices was collected for 23 unique vehicles at 10 farms in Sinop, Mato Grosso. Trailer condition and overloading have been linked to grain losses during transportation. Each truck was assessed, with photographic documentation, for suitability in transporting grains. A total of six different brands of semi-tractors were encountered. Bitrams were the majority at 43%, followed by single trailers at 35%, and solid body trucks at 22%. Nearly four out of five trailers were steel framed with wooden floors and walls. The remainder were solid steel. Trailer heights varied from 1.7 m to 2.3 m, but heights of 2 m were most common. All trailers were equipped with plasticized tarps that were manually closed after loading. No trailers were aluminum or hopper bodied, which are most common in the United States. Overall, key features that mitigated postharvest loss were solid metal trailers, tight-sealing plasticized tarps for protection from moisture and to reduce spilt grain, and unloading methods which allowed for the complete emptying of the trailer.
