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Fraction of un-ionized ammonia in aqueous solution at different pH values and temperatures. Calculated from data in Emmerson et al. (1975). To calculate the amount of un-ionized ammonia present, the Total Ammonia Nitrogen (TAN) must be multiplied by the appropriate factor selected from this table using the pH and temperature from your water sample. See the example in Figure 3.
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... Toxic levels of nitrogen, usually involving ammonia, are often implicated in fish kills (BAFU, 2020;Francis-Floyd et al., 2009;La & Cooke, 2011). In water, non-ionized ammonia (NH 3 ) occurs in an equilibrium with ionized ammonium (NH 4 + ) (Francis-Floyd et al., 2009;Levit, 2010), of which the former is toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms (Randall & Tsui, 2002;U.S. EPA, 2013). ...
... Toxic levels of nitrogen, usually involving ammonia, are often implicated in fish kills (BAFU, 2020;Francis-Floyd et al., 2009;La & Cooke, 2011). In water, non-ionized ammonia (NH 3 ) occurs in an equilibrium with ionized ammonium (NH 4 + ) (Francis-Floyd et al., 2009;Levit, 2010), of which the former is toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms (Randall & Tsui, 2002;U.S. EPA, 2013). The equilibrium is affected by both pH and water temperature. ...
In the summer of 2015, large amounts of artificial fertilizer containing ammonium nitrate were accidentally discharged into the Jagst River along with water used to extinguish a serious fire. The incident caused a massive fish kill the first 25 km downstream of the spill and impacted fish density along a 50 km stretch of this sensitive and important river. In this study, the long-term effects of the accident on the local fish fauna were investigated, and the implemented restoration measures were evaluated. A majority of fish surviving the immediate effects of the incident exhibited massive gill damage and weakness to infections shortly after the accident, but survival over the following winter appeared unimpaired. Two years after the accident, most survived fish appeared healthy. In 2016, about 9500 individuals (500 kg fish of 11 autochthonous species) were caught in unaffected sections of the river and distributed systematically into severely affected sections. Two control sections were left unstocked. Species diversity and fish density remained low over the first winter 2015/16, but increased in autumn 2016, most likely as a result of systematic stocking measures taken in response to the disaster. Stocking and natural migration were able to restore species diversity back to pre-accident levels in due time, i.e., 36 months, but density remains lower and shows no sign of further recovery. A positive consequence of the catastrophe has been the enactment in the ensuing years of various measures to improve the resilience of the Jagst River. However, connectivity is still lacking in relevant sections of the river and this, in combination with high predation from an increasing population of cormorants, has hampered the recovery of fish stocks. Generalizable conservation measures to mitigate the impact of similar catastrophes are developed and discussed.
... On top of that, low-quality feeds tend to have a low digestibility [59] which in turn increases the excretion/defecation rates of cultured fish. Such conditions contribute to the loading of the culture water column with nitrogenous and other wastes that result from the decomposition of uneaten feed, as well as excretion [37,38,60,61]. Nitrogenous wastes lead to high stress levels, low growth rates, high FCR, and in the worst scenario, fish mortalities, as well as increased susceptibility to diseases [17,37,51]. ...
... In aquaculture, the build-up of nitrogenous wastes in fish farming systems is unavoidable. However, skillful manipulation of the culture environment such as the appropriate proliferation of bacteria (pH between 7-9; temperature approximately 24-29 °C), water exchange, feeding, and stocking density management are known to keep the concentration of toxic ammonia in check [37,60,62]. ...
Dear Colleagues,
The main prerequisite for successful aquaculture
production is maintaining the optimal quality of the
breeding environment, i.e., the water in which aquaculture
production is carried out. The basic parameters of water
quality in aquaculture are temperature, amount of
dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide, pH value, alkalinity,
amount of dissolved ammonia and nitrate, and
microbiological properties. Maintaining these parameters
at an optimal level, which differs depending on the
cultivated species, requires specific methods in different
cultivation systems. The primary aim of this Special Issue is
to collect and publish papers that are focused on the
effects of water quality on aquaculture production and/or
on the maintanance of water quality parameters at an
optimal level in different aquaculture systems. We are open
to contributions from a wide range of fields, from the
impact of water quality on the production itself, to the
optimization of cultivation technologies, water quality and
safety in integrated aquaculture systems and the
mitigation and reuse of wastewater in aquaculture
production.
... Product feasibility tests are tests that will be carried out by experts or experts and also some respondents to assess the feasibility of the system / product being developed, feasibility is assessed from several aspects such as usability and performance. [16] Before testing, the pH sensor is calibrated first so that the reading can be closer to the actual result. Calibration is carried out using pH buffer 4.01 and pH buffer 7.00, then the output voltage value is recorded and then calibrated using a straight-line equation formula to get the appropriate results. ...
The Moving Average method is the most common filter in Digital Signal Processing, the Moving Average method is optimal for reducing unstable value fluctuations due to interference by maintaining accurate readings. Therefore it is often used for signal coding in the context of time (Smith, 1999). The kind of moving average method is the Exponentially Weighted Moving Average (EWMA) which is often applied to a time sequence of random variables, by calculating the weighted average of the sequence by applying a weight that decreases geometrically with the length of observation (Perry, 2011). this method can be applied to tools/instruments that use data continuously in a certain time so that it will require a filter so that the fluctuations in the data are not extreme which will result in changes in the output response being softer so as not to damage the device on the output. This study uses the EWMA method to eliminate noise in the processing of sensor readings. The results of the study, the system is able to monitor realtime ph and temperature data. In fish farming, measuring and monitoring water temperature and ph is important, if it is not regularly measured and monitored it can cause various problems such as pH and temperature that are not optimal for fish growth and health. The research method to be carried out is R&D, EWMA will be applied to a multi-sensor circuit then processed by a data logger device to then be displayed on serial data on its output.
... Tuy nhiên, trong cùng một mô hình thì hàm lượng NH3 của bể cá rô phi đạt 0,058 mg/l và lại cao hơn bể cá lóc 0,034 mg/l, một phần là do quá trình lắp đặt hệ thống, bể cá lóc được lấy nước trực tiếp từ khay rau đổ về, đã qua quá trình xử lý qua bể lọc cơ và lọc vi sinh nên hàm lượng NH3 thấp hơn so với bể cá rô phi. NH3 gây độc cho cá khi hàm lượng trên 0,05 mg/L [17] và hàm lượng NH3 mà các loài thuỷ sản có thể sinh trưởng tốt là từ 0,2-2 mg/l [13], [16]. Kết quả cho thấy, mặc dù hàm lượng NH3 ở các mô hình có cao nhưng vẫn nằm trong khoảng tương đối thích hợp cho các loài thủy sản. ...
Nghiên cứu này được thực hiện nhằm xây dựng mô hình Aquaponics nâng ngập xả cạn trên giá thể đất nung và thử nghiệm trên các loài cá khác nhau (Microsynodontis armatus, Clarias. gariepinus, Oreochromis niloticus và Channa striata) và cây trồng (I. aquatica, L. siceraria, T. cucumerina và C. sativus). Tốc độ tăng trưởng của cá, thực vật và các thông số môi trường nước (pH, nhiệt độ, NH3, NO2-) trong hệ thống Aquaponics được ghi lại và đánh giá trong quá trình thí nghiệm. Kết quả cho thấy, bốn loài cá được khảo sát trong thí nghiệm có tỷ lệ sống cao (> 87%). Tốc độ tăng trưởng về trọng lượng cao nhất ở C. gariepinus (218,2±18,50 g) và thấp nhất ở M. armatus (29,95 ± 1,73 g). Tốc độ tăng trưởng của O. niloticus và C. striata lần lượt là 72,77±3,22 g và 84,55±5,42 g. Các loại rau và dây leo (xà lách xoong Nhật, rau muống, dây bầu, khổ qua tây và dưa leo) được chọn thử nghiệm trong hệ thống Aquaponics đều phát triển tốt, không xuất hiện sâu bệnh. Nhìn chung, các thông số môi trường khảo sát trong các mô hình Aquaponics đều nằm trong khoảng thích hợp cho sự phát triển của cá và rau.
... However, from the aquaculture point of view, this system has some limitations, including the increased risk of diseases and the continuous elevation of toxic metabolites such as ambient ammonia (Crab et al., 2007;Pulkkinen et al., 2010;Romero et al., 2012;Wang et al., 2021). Water quality management is one of the important ways to reduce toxic substances such as ammonia in fish ponds (Hargreaves and Tucker, 2004;Francis-Floyd et al., 2009). However, it is difficult to continuously maintain water quality in optimized condition, especially in high fish densities. ...
Rosmarinic acid (RS) and Lactobacillus rhamnosus (LR) were added singularly or in combination to rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) diets to test their efficacy in the protection against ammonia stress. Fish (31.4±0.6 g) were randomly allocated to six groups in three replicates, as follows: T 1 : basic food as control, T 2 : LR with a concentration of 1.5 × 10 ⁸ CFU/g, T 3 : LR with a concentration of 3 × 10 ⁸ CFU/g, T 4 : 1 g RS/kg, T 5 : 3 g RS/kg, and T 6 : 1.5 × 10 ⁸ CFU/g LR + 1 g RS/kg and T 7 : 3 × 10 ⁸ CFU/g LR + 3 g RS/kg. After 60 days feeding, fish exposed to 0ammonia stress. After the feeding period, the supplemented fish had the highest final body weight (FW), weight gain (WG), and specific growth rate (SGR), and the lowest feed conversion ratio (FCR) as compared with the control group (P<0.05). Amylase, protease and lipase activities were noticed markedly higher in fish supplemented with 1.5 × 10 ⁸ CFU/g LR + 1 g RS/kg and 1.5 × 10 ⁸ CFU/g LR diets compared to the control (P<0.05). Generally, fish in supplemented diets, particularly T 2 and T 6 groups, had the highest lysozyme, alternative complement activity (ACH 50 ), total Ig, nitroblue tetrazolium test (NBT), myeloperoxidase (MPO), complement component 3 (C 3 ), complement component 4 (C 4 ), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx). On the other hand, T 2 and T 6 groups had the lowest malondialdehyde (MDA), glucose, and cortisol concentrations as well as alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) enzyme levels when were compared with the control (P<0.05). After ammonia stress, fish in the supplemented groups, particularly T 2 and T 6 , generally showed significantly higher values of lysozyme, ACH50, total Ig, NBT, MPO, C 3 , C 4 , SOD, CAT, GPx and lower levels of MDA, glucose, cortisol, ALT, ALP, LDH when compared with the control (P<0.05). In conclusion, a combined administration of RS and L. rhamnosus effectively improved growth performance and health status as well as enhanced the resistance of rainbow trout against ammonia toxicity.
... Ammonia is toxic to fish and other aquatic animals and is considered to be a major factor limiting fish production in intensive culture systems (Thurston and Russo 1983;Cai and Summerfelt 1992;Forsberg and Summerfelt 1992;Leung et al. 1999). Francis-Floyd et al. (2009) observed that small amounts of ammonia cause stress and gill damage and can exert sub-lethal stress to fish at ammonia (NH 3 -N) concentrations below 0.05 mg L −1 resulting in poor growth and reduced disease resistance. Various researchers suggested that the TAN values should be less than 1.0 mg L −1 for good growth of all aquaculture species (Lawson 1995;Jena and Das 2006). ...
Biofilter is a key component in recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) for converting highly toxic ammonia to less toxic nitrate using nitrifying bacteria. In the present study, two configurations of rotating biological contactors (RBC)—biodisk and biodrum—were designed and fabricated for development of recirculating freshwater prawn hatchery. The larvae of the giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) were reared in artificial seawater which was prepared by mixing commercial grade salts in bore-well water. A total of 36 larval rearing trials were conducted in four cycles (each cycle lasted for 35 to 40 days) under different flow rates of 100, 150, 200, and 250 L h−1. Each cycle comprised of three larval rearing trials (T1, T2, and T3) involving biodisk, three larval rearing trials (T4, T5, and T6) involving biodrum, and three larval rearing trials (C1, C2, and C3) as control (without recirculation and biofilter). Freshly hatched larvae of M. rosenbergii were stocked at the rate of 100 numbers per litre in conico-cylindrical shaped fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) tanks containing artificial seawater. Both the biodrum and biodisk configurations of RBC performed well in the recirculating system. The lowest value of total ammoniacal nitrogen (TAN) was observed in treatment tanks having biodrum RBCs (0.16 mg L−1) followed by biodisk RBCs (0.18 mg L−1), while the highest value of TAN was observed in the control (0.32 mg L−1). The highest survival of larvae of M. rosenbergii up to 55.3 and 47.6% was recorded in treatment tanks having recirculating systems involving biodrum and biodisk RBCs, respectively. In both the treatments involving biodrum and biodisk RBCs, the maximum survival of larvae occurred at a flow rate of 150 L h−1; and thereafter, the survival rate declined. The polynomial regression analysis revealed that the optimum flow rate was 175 L h−1. Hence, a flow rate of 175 L h−1 could be considered optimum in a recirculating freshwater prawn hatchery using rotating biological contactors.
... High ammonia levels slow fish growth, decrease survival and cause many physiological dysfunctions in fish (Anantharaja et al., 2017;Yildiz et al., 2017). Low unionized ammonium-nitrogen levels cause slow growth and tissue damage in fish (Francis-Floyd et al., 2009). In a well-buffered aquaponic system, tilapia is rarely affected by ammonium toxicity. ...
Aquaponics incorporates aquaculture with hydroponics, whose principles and operations largely remain untested. Currently, there is a knowledge gap on the performance of aquaponic systems used for fish production under different stocking densities. This may hinder adoption and generally retard the development of aquaponic culture systems for fish and vegetation production in Kenya. The objective of the current study was to determine the effect of fish stocking density on the growth performance of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) reared in a coupled aquaponic system. We used three fish stocking densities of 150, 300 and 450 fish m −3 , each replicated five times. For each treatment or fish stocking density, 16 lettuces were planted m −2 as the planting density. We monitored the following water quality parameters to determine the effects of fish stocking density on water quality; pH, total ammonium-nitrogen (TAN), nitrates (NO − 3), nitrites (NO − 2). In the different stocking densities (450, 300 and 150 fish m −3), the water quality parameters ranged from dissolved oxygen: 4-7 mg L −1 ; pH: 6.3-7.3; TAN: 0.32-0.57 mg L −1 ; NO − 3 : 0.13-0.36 mg L −1 and NO − 2 : 0.020-0.046 mg L −1. The final weight of the Nile tilapia fingerlings was 25.2 ± 4.2, 32.0 ± 3.8 and 42.6 ± 3.1 g for 450, 300 and 150 fish m −3 , respectively. The biomass of lettuce was statistically different (p < 0.005) and increased with increasing stocking density as 166.4 ± 9.8, 276.8 ± 23.2 and 304.6 ± 23.2 g for 150, 300 and 450 fish m −3 , respectively. Adopting the intermediate stocking density of 300 fish m −3 , which gave the best performance of the aquaponic system, is therefore highly recommended.
... In aquaculture, ammonia is a stressor because of its ecological and environmental relevance besides its ability to influence the digestive physiology of fish (IP & Chew, 2010;Turner et al., 2019). Ammonia stress concentrations were prepared by dissolving ammonium chloride (batch number 213330, 99.9% purity), 0.0 (control/culture water), 0.1, 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2g/l that were converted to 0.0 (control), 0.03, 0.2, 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7mg/l respectively using a conversion factor of 0.0502 as described by Francis-Floyd et al., (2009), in plastic buckets filled to five litres with tap water. The pH of the prepared ammonium chloride solutions was increased from 6.2 to 7 by an addition of few drops of sodium hydroxide (1N NaOH) to avoid any changes as the experiment progressed. ...
Enhanced growth and survival indicate a quality diet important in the production of quality fish larvae. Diet’s quality heavily depends on the quality of its protein which varies with inclusion levels and sources. This Influences stress responses and compromises wellbeing larvae due to diets suboptimal provision of nutritional requirements. However, there exists a knowledge gap on the performance of different proteins beyond growth and survival. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of partially replacing Caridina nilotica with Spirulina platensis or Eisenia fetida on stress tolerance of Clarias gariepinus larvae. This was conducted in 0.0, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7mg/l ammonia concentrations at 28°C and pH 7 within 24-hours using four- and six-weeks old larvae. The larvae were fed on formulated diets and a control at 10% body weight, five times a day. All larvae exposed to 0.7mg/l ammonia concentration died irrespective of the diet fed. A combination of 50%Caridina nilotica and 50%Eisenia fetida fed larvae posted low (p<0.001) total mortality of 78% and 52% in 0.5mg/l, stress indices of 457.3 and 342 and, took the longest time of 12.67 and 18.67-hours for half the number of larvae exposed to die in 0.7mg/l ammonia respectively for four- and six-week-old larvae. However, larvae fed on 50%Spirulina platensis and 50%Caridina nilotica posted higher (p<0.001) total mortality of 97% and 73% in 0.5mg/l, stress indices of 574.3 and 476.3 and, shortest time of 8 and 10.17-hours for half the number of 4- and 6-weeks old (respectively) larvae exposed to 0.7mg/l ammonia to die. Protein source influenced stress tolerance with Eisenia fetida diets enhancing better larvae tolerance to ammonia compared to Spirulina platensis and Caridina nilotica (control) diets. Caridina nilotica could be replaced by Eisenia fetida up to 50% and 25% by Spirulina platensis to enhance Clarias gariepinus larvae tolerance to ammonia stress.
... Low levels of dissolved oxygen inhibit nitrifying bacteria's capacity to convert ammonia and nitrite, it's critical to keep an eye on dissolved oxygen levels. A strong water quality management programme will help to prevent disease, boost growth, and eliminate the need for chemical treatments (Francis-Floyd et al., 2009) [98] . ...
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is one of the most important factors for aquatic animals as especially for those who derive dissolved oxygen from the water. DO levels indicate the quality of water. Many biotic and abiotic factors may influence DO concentration like mixing of different water bodies, upwelling, atmospheric exchange, respiration, photosynthesis, ice cover, pollution and some physical factors like salinity and temperature. The fluctuations in DO levels in water affect fish physiology. In this review, we will focus on the impact of DO on freshwater fish-physiology. A detailed literature survey is given based on DO and freshwater fish swimming, feeding, disease management, survival, respiration, metabolism, growth, reproduction, health parameters, immunity and stress of freshwater fishes.
... The negative consequences of these qualities exacerbate when combined with a high temperature (28 °C in the affected earthen ponds); these records are not comparable to the international standards recommended for fish farming. The optimum oxygen level in aquaculture ponds is about 6 mg/l (Bhatnagar and Devi 2013), while the acceptable unionized ammonia level is (0.05-0.1 mg/l) (Boyd 1990;Francis-Floyd et al. 2009), and it should not exceed 0.02 mg/l according to Bhatnagar and Devi (2013). Unionized ammonia damages the gills and other fish tissues (Francis-Floyd et al. 2009), facilitating invasions with infectious agents. ...
... The optimum oxygen level in aquaculture ponds is about 6 mg/l (Bhatnagar and Devi 2013), while the acceptable unionized ammonia level is (0.05-0.1 mg/l) (Boyd 1990;Francis-Floyd et al. 2009), and it should not exceed 0.02 mg/l according to Bhatnagar and Devi (2013). Unionized ammonia damages the gills and other fish tissues (Francis-Floyd et al. 2009), facilitating invasions with infectious agents. The bacteriological examination of moribund fish specimens indicated involvement of the detected Vibrio spp. in tilapia mortalities. ...
Vibriosis is a common disease in aquaculture. Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) farmed within some commercial fish farms in Kafr El-Sheikh governorate Egypt showed signs of disease and exhibited heavy mortality. In order to get to the root of the problem, ninety moribund tilapia were sampled from the affected fish farms and subjected to bacteriological and molecular examinations. Biochemical characterization of bacterial isolates was performed via the API 20E analytical system. All examined fish samples were infected with Vibrio species. Eighteen Vibrio isolates, V. mimicus (n = 12), and V. cholerae (n = 6) were taken randomly for molecular characterization and further analysis. Isolates were genotyped via sequencing and alignment of the recA gene. Isolates possessed numerous virulence traits, including the production of hemolysins, proteases, lipases, and nucleases. The prevalence of ompU, vmh, vpsR, and flrA virulence genes in Vibrio strains was 61.1%, 66.6%, 27.7%, and 33.3 %, respectively. The blaTEM (55.5%), apHAI (50%), and qnrVC (27.7%) antibiotic resistance genes were recorded in Vibrio strains. All Vibrio isolates (100%) were resistant to ampicillin 10 μg and amoxicillin 30 μg, while they showed high sensitivity against florfenicol 30 µg (83.3%) and ciprofloxacin 5 µg (77.7%). Challenge experiments in Nile tilapia confirmed pathogenicity of the isolates. Fish showed symptoms of septicemia and high mortality was observed. Infections induced numerous histopathological alterations in diseased fish. This is the first report of V. mimicus outbreaks associated with mass mortality in Egyptian farmed Nile tilapia. The findings form the basis for future development of effective control and preventive measures against one of the most infectious pathogens that affect fish and humans.
