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Four types of pores in woven fabrics shown three-dimensionally (a), 12 in a planar way (b), and on the weaving paper (c).
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Air permeability is one of the fundamental textile properties influencing the design of comfortable clothes. In particular, it is very important in the field of technical textiles. Air permeability depends mainly on the fabric structure, which can be described by yarn linear density, type of yarn, warp/weft density and weave.
The purpose of our stu...
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... the used weave, as a construction parameter, definitely influences the shape and dimension of pores. 5,10,11 As shown in Figure 1, depending on the weave, four types of pores can exist in one-layer woven fabrics. ...
Citations
... The higher the air permeability value, the easier it is for air to flow through the fabric. The level of air permeability depends on fabric structure, yarn type, fibre parameters, etc. (Zupin et al., 2012). The tested samples (Figure 3) show that BCI cotton has better air permeability properties than conventional cotton in most cases. ...
The study discusses research findings on the thermal characteristics of BCI cotton, 100% conventional cotton, and blends with polyester and elastane. The investigation emphasises single-jersey, rib jersey, and single-jersey blend arrangements. The thermal properties of the recommended knitted material configuration were assessed. The results indicate that each fabric composition with a varied structure exhibits distinct thermal characteristics. BCI cotton fabrics have good uniformity and structure due to cultivation compliance, better thermal conductivity, air permeability, and thermal transmittance. They are eventually better for sportswear and summer apparel products. However, it is essential to consider that the other side of both rib and single jersey fabrics made of conventional cotton with less uniformity includes a more significant CLO and thermal resistance value than BCI cotton fabrics, giving a warmer feeling and being more fruitful for winter clothing with better-trapped air and heat. Thermo-physiological comfort is influenced by various factors such as fiber content, yarn quality, fabric finish, structure, and heat and water vapor resistance, which increase with material thickness and air entrapment in the fabric.
... Air permeability is purely dependent on the porosity of the fabrics, as the increasing number of pores in 3D fabrics governed a trend of increasing air permeability. 30,31 In weft interlock structures, the binding weft yarns taken from both the upper and lower layers, create higher porosity, allowing greater airflow. As a result, this structure exhibits the highest air permeability values. ...
Multilayer three-dimensional (3D) fabrics are gaining importance due to their unique properties, which are significantly influenced by the interlocking pattern and govern their end-use applications, particularly in protective textiles requiring higher through-the-thickness mechanical characteristics. This research focuses on developing 3D woven structures with novel orthogonal through-the-thickness interlocking patterns: warp interlocked (WP-IL), weft interlocked (WT-IL), and hybrid interlocked (HB-IL) by using warp and weft yarns simultaneously for interlocking fabric layers. Various performance characteristics, including air permeability, thermal conductivity, compression resistance, bending rigidity, tensile strength, and puncture resistance, were evaluated to assess the influence of fabric structure. Statistical analysis using One-way ANOVA was conducted to determine the significance of the interlocking pattern on these properties. The results indicate that weft interlock structures exhibit the highest air permeability due to their greater porosity, whereas hybrid interlock and warp interlock structures show 20.7% and 18% lower air permeability, respectively, due to their reduced structural porosity. Thermal conductivity results suggest no significant differences in insulation properties among the structures. Hybrid interlock fabrics demonstrate superior compression resistance and tensile strength, with 26.2% higher tensile strength than warp interlock structures and 12.3% higher than weft interlock structures in the warp direction, owing to the balanced distribution of binding yarns. In contrast, warp interlock structures exhibit the lowest bending rigidity in the weft direction, making them more flexible. Additionally, hybrid interlock structures provide the highest puncture resistance, while weft interlock structures show the lowest resistance due to their increased porosity. These findings highlight the critical role of fabric architecture in determining both comfort and mechanical properties, providing valuable insights for selecting optimal 3D woven structures in applications requiring specific performance attributes.
... Porositas mikro merupakan ruang kosong antar serat di dalam benang sedangkan porositas makro merupakan ruang kosong diantara benang pada kain. Porositas makro kain tenun dapat ditentukan dari kerapatan fisik kain dan serat sedangkan jumlah pori dapat disimpulkan dari jumlah titik silangan [15]. Jumlah silangan pada anyaman plain adalah yang paling banyak diantara jenis anyaman lainnya. ...
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pengaruh porositas kain tenun terhadap penyerapan zat warna menggunakan metode pengolahan citra digital. Porositas diukur melalui citra hasil pemindaian sampel kain dengan pendekatan thresholding menggunakan perangkat lunak berbasis Java. Metode statistik Kruskal-Wallis digunakan untuk menguji signifikansi perbedaan porositas dan nilai K/S antar jenis anyaman. Hasil menunjukkan korelasi negatif yang signifikan (r = - 0.858) antara porositas dan nilai K/S, dengan kontribusi porositas sebesar 73,65% terhadap variasi penyerapan warna. Jenis anyaman satin menunjukkan performa terbaik dalam penyerapan zat warna, sesuai dengan teori peningkatan kontak antar serat. Penelitian ini memberikan kontribusi pada pengembangan metode kuantitatif dalam evaluasi kualitas kain menggunakan teknologi pengolahan citra.
... The implementation is based on a further dimension reduction approach, enabling the efficient discretization of the filter yarns with 1D beam FE. For the permeability, semi-analytical expressions for woven filters from Zupin et al. (2012) are utilized in the following explicit example. Alternatively, an additional coupling to a Stokes solver in the micro-resolved fluid part of the reference cell can be employed, see Krier et al. (2024). ...
A design optimization task in the setting of fluid–structure interaction (FSI) with a periodic filter medium is considered. On the microscale, the thin filter has a small in-plane period and thickness and consist of flexural yarns in contact. Its topology, as well as its linear material properties, are dependent on a discrete design variable. A desired flow-induced displacement profile of the filter in steady-state is to be obtained by optimal choice of this variable. The governing state system is a one-way coupled, homogenized and dimension reduced FSI model, attained by the scale limit . The design variable enters in the arising macroscopic model parameters, namely the filter’s homogenized stiffness tensors and its permeability tensor. The latter are attained by the solution of cell-problems on the smallest periodic unit of the filter. The existence of optimal solutions is verified by proving the continuous dependence of these macroscopic model parameters, as well as the design-to-state operator, on changes of the design. A numerical optimization example is provided.
... The determination of a small number of parameters that have the greatest impact on the air permeability of cotton fabrics and enable its prediction is presented in the paper [9]. To specify the influence of fabric structure parameters, a combined parameter, the hydraulic pore diameter, known from fluid theory, is included. ...
Introduction. The assessment of the macro- and microporous structure of textile fabrics is increasingly relevant for predicting their permeability, dyeability, and decorative potential. This evaluation plays a crucial role in determining the hygienic properties of clothing materials, optimizing dyeing and finishing processes, and assessing the filtration capabilities of technical fabrics in various dispersed media.Problem Statement. Challenges persist in accurately predicting the permeability of textile fabrics, as well as in determining the optimal parameters for dyeing and finishing processes.Purpose. The purpose of this research is developing a rapid, cost-effective, and accurate method to evaluate the macro- and microporous structure of textile materials is essential for assessing their permeability and suitability for dyeing and fi nishing processes.Materials and Methods. To study the porous structure of textile fabrics, we select the fabrics that varied in the thread structure — yarn produced by traditional and shortened methods — and in the fibrous composition. The first fabric is made from complex polyamide threads in a plain weave, the second from twill-woven polyester fiber yarn, and the third differs from the second in the structure of the weft thread. The macro- and microporous structures of these textile fabrics have been assessed by means of drying methods and sorption thermograms.Results. The micro- and macroporous structures of textile fabrics made from polyamide threads and polyester fibers have been compared. It has been found that the fabric made from polyamide threads exhibits a significantly higher sorption capacity than the fabric made from polyester fibers. This finding suggests that the fabrics made from polyamide threads possess a more developed microporous structure. This fact enhances their dyeing and decorating capabilities as compared with the fabrics made from polyester fibers. A comprehensive approach, utilizing both drying methods and sorption thermograms, has been employed to evaluate the macro- and microporous structures of the textile fabrics. Conclusions. The proposed comprehensive approach enables comparative studies of various textile materials, allowing for the refinement of technological processes for dyeing and decorating, as well as the identification of potential applications for these materials.
... Physical characteristics of samples, measured warp and weft density, mass per square meter, and thickness were measured according to standards [14][15][16]. Set warp and weft density, measured warp and weft density, mass per square metre, and thickness of the fabrics are presented in Table 1 [17]. The diameter of the warp and weft threads was measured on captured images with all three types of illumination (transmitted, reflected, and both transmitted and reflected) and with both magnifications (5× (0.5) and 10× (1)). ...
... It is expressed with Equation (1) in terms of corresponding densities: One of the parameters often used in dynamics of fluids when handling flow in noncircular tubes and channels is the so-called hydraulic diameter of pores D h . Different shapes of mainly rectangular pores in the woven fabrics can be translated into an equivalent diameter of an ideal round-shaped pore [17,20,21]. Hydraulic diameter is defined as a quotient between the pore cross-sectional area A and the wetted perimeter of the crosssection P, and can be calculated from Equations (2) and (3) for the most common shapes of macropores in woven fabrics. ...
Porosity, the measure of the open spaces within a fabric structure, is a decisive factor in the performance of textiles. It influences breathability, permeability to liquids or gases, and suitability for various industries such as apparel, medical, and technical textiles. This study compares classical porosity calculation methods with non-destructive image analysis for 24 woven fabric samples that differ in density and weave pattern. Factors such as fabric density, weave pattern, illumination conditions, magnification, and the influence of the Otsu and Yen threshold algorithms were considered. The multifactor ANOVA statistical analysis shows that fabric density and weave pattern significantly influence porosity, with illumination playing an important role, while the threshold algorithm has a minor influence. A strong correlation is found between the actual fabric porosity and the results of the image analysis, except for double-sided illumination (reflective and transmissive), where the correlation is weakest. This comprehensive investigation provides valuable insights into the reliability of different porosity assessment approaches, which is essential for applications in various textile industries.
... It should be noted that, in the case of a plain weave, the smallest periodic RVE consists of at least two warp and two weft yarns [33]. In this research, RVE was based on an experimental investigation conducted by Zupin et al. [34] in which construction parameters and the air permeability coefficient of one-layer woven structures were measured. The experiments on air permeability coefficient (AP) were done according to the ISO 9237:1995 (E) standard [35]. ...
... In this study, the optimal mesh size was determined by evaluating and comparing the numerically predicted air permeability (AP) coefficient with experimental data from the literature [34]. The proposed computation model of the air permeability (AP) coefficient was built on the assumption that airflow is an incompressible Newtonian flow and has a low Re number. ...
... In order, to determine an optimal mesh five different meshes (extremely coarse, extra coarse, coarser, coarse, and normal) were taken into consideration. Then, the numerical solution of AP was compared with experimental data [34] taking into account computation time and relative error. ...
In this study, computational models of heat and mass exchange through textile structures with additional ventilation at the micro- and macro-scale were investigated. The finite element analysis of advanced textile materials provides a better understanding of their heat and mass transfer properties, which influence thermal comfort. The developed computational models can predict air permeability (AP), thermal resistance (Rct), and heat transfer (h) coefficients at the micro-scale. Moreover, the mesh size was taken into consideration and validated with experimental data presented in the literature. In addition, computational models were extended to micro- and macro-scale forced ventilation models. Macro-scale finite element models require input parameters such as an effective heat transfer coefficient that are usually obtained experimentally. In this research, the heat transfer coefficients (hmicrolayer = 25.603 W/(K·m²), htotal = 8.9646 W/(K·m²)) were obtained numerically from the micro-scale model and were applied to a macro-scale model. The proposed methodology and developed models facilitate the determination of average temperature and temperature distributions through different through-thickness positions along the axis Oz. The simulations were carried out using Comsol Multiphysics and Matlab software.
... 17,18,19,20,21,22,23 Later, when considering models like the cylinder, hydraulic diameter, parabolic curve, etc., researchers put a lot of stress on the gap geometry. 24,25,26,27 These models demonstrate that the gap permeability is typically substantially greater than the fiber volume fraction, which includes the fabric porosity value. The transverse compression behavior of cotton yarns and fabrics can be studied using experimental and numerical methods. ...
The inherent complexity of textile preforms and a high degree of consistency in dry fabrics and yarns present a number of modeling challenges, including uncertainty in geometrical characteristics under external loads, non-elastic deformations of fibrous media, and multiple deformation modes at the fiber and yarn scales. The prediction of the compaction reaction for different preforms is still possible thanks to the direct measurements of yarn compaction. The data are checked against compression stress-thickness curves that were produced by compacting yarns and preforms. The yarn and fabric compaction model given in this article demonstrates the final characteristics of woven preforms. The yarn compaction curve exhibits asymptotic hardening with a restricted compaction state attained at high compression stress and as the limit deformations are being approached. The yarn count, yarn fiber volume ratio, and the spinning method all affected the compression modulus. The transverse compression behaviour of yarns and fabrics was studied both analytically and experimentally. Mechanisms of fabric compressibility have been found to be reliant on both fabric and yarn specifications of warp and weft Young’s modulus. Investigations were made into the fabric’s fiber volume fraction under compression stress. When producing composite with low fiber volume fraction preforms, it may be more efficient to use more compression, according to research on the link between compressive stress and fabric volume fraction. The relationship between the compressive stress and fabric volume fraction was investigated, as well as the value of maximum compression stress.
... Kim [22] reported the wicking and drying properties of knitted fabrics made from PTT/wool/modal blended yarns using the ring, compact, and air vortex spinning systems. Zupin et al. [23] identified some parameters with the strongest influence on the water and air permeability of cotton fabrics using the porosity parameters. Some studies [23][24][25][26][27] examined the porosity of functional hollow filaments and their composite yarns and woven fabrics, as well as their effects on water and moisture permeability. ...
... Zupin et al. [23] identified some parameters with the strongest influence on the water and air permeability of cotton fabrics using the porosity parameters. Some studies [23][24][25][26][27] examined the porosity of functional hollow filaments and their composite yarns and woven fabrics, as well as their effects on water and moisture permeability. ...
... Macro porosity is more important for air permeability, and micro porosity is more applicable to absorption and capillary phenomena. In this study, the theoretical porosity [23,34] could not apply because the fabric specimens used in this study were produced with the same fabric structural parameters, meaning that the theoretical porosity may not be available to examine the difference in the moisture absorption and drying properties among the fabric specimens. Accordingly, the pore size was measured and calculated using the graph measured, which was mentioned previously in the Experimental Section. Figure 1 presents cross-sections of the warp and weft yarn specimens and SEM images of the surface and cross-sections (warp and weft) of the fabric specimens, in which schematic diagrams of the yarn specimens were drawn. ...
This study examined the perspiration absorption and drying characteristics of eco-friendly fiber-embedded fabrics with different yarn structures. The wicking and drying rates of fifteen fabrics made from quadrilobal PET, Lyocell, and bamboo fibers were measured using two evaluation methods and compared with the pore diameter and hygroscopic characteristics of the constituent fibers in the yarns. The sheath/core yarn structure played a vital role in improving the moisture absorption and drying properties of the eco-friendly fibers embedded in high-performance fabrics, which was partly affected by the hygroscopicity and non-circular cross-section of constituent fibers in the yarns. Superior perspiration absorption and drying properties among the various eco-friendly high-performance fabrics were observed in the quadrilobal PET/Lyocell sheath/core and quadrilobal PET/bamboo spun yarn fabrics. By contrast, the PET/Lyocell Siro-fil, bamboo spun, and hi-multi PET yarn fabrics exhibited inferior moisture absorption and drying properties. In particular, the evaluated results between transverse and vertical wicking measuring methods in absorption property showed a similar trend. In contrast, the drying property measured between the drying rate (min) at a steady state and the drying rate (g) at a transient state showed a different trend. Multiple regression analysis showed that the wicking property of the eco-friendly fiber-embedded fabrics was mainly related to the pore diameter, cross-sectional shape, and absorption property of the fibers in the yarns, and it was also highly associated with the drying characteristics of the fabrics. The market application of the sheath/core yarn structure using Lyocell and bamboo fibers with quadrilobal PET is available for producing eco-friendly fabrics that can contribute to environmental improvement and wear comfort related to the moisture absorption and fast-drying properties of the woven fabrics.
... Air permeability is one of the functional characteristics of textile materials. It is one of the important parameters to consider while evaluating the comfort of fabrics [5]. Air permeability can be defined as the volume of air measured in mm passed per second from 100mm 2 of a textile material at a water head pressure of 10mm [6]. ...
The air permeability of fabrics is one of the most important factors to be considered in making comfortable clothing for consumers. It helps to transport moisture in the form of vapours from the inner skin to the outer environment. This study aims at determining the rate of airflow through the prepared knitted fabrics after various washing intervals. Circular knitted fabrics with 100% cotton and a blend of cotton and polyester having a ratio of 70% / 30% were made by setting different construction parameters. Prepared fabrics were evaluated for their air permeability by following the ASTM D737-1996 test procedure. Then these fabrics were laundered with standard procedure and evaluated after various intervals. It was concluded from the obtained results that construction parameters such as kind of polymer, loop length, hairiness, yarn count, number and size of pores and their distribution play a major role in determining the air permeability of knitted fabrics. Moreover, an increase in washing cycles also reduces the airflow through the fabric.
