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Flowchart of the process of esterification to create biodiesel fuel. Source: National Biodiesel Board production
Citations
... Although human-edible protein may have been utilised in the production of PAPs, an approach similar to the allocation of GHG emissions to the primary product when MBM is being utilised as a renewable-energy source (Ariyaratne et al. 2015;Kowalski et al. 2021) has been applied. If economic allocation is utilised, Beer et al. (2007) showed that MBM comprised just 0.55% of the total economic value of the beef supply chain in the year 2000. If we included MBM at this 0.55% level, it would increase the total humanedible protein fed by 0.18%. ...
Debate surrounding the adverse consequences of feeding human-edible feedstuffs to livestock can be addressed through calculation of the net protein contribution (NPC) of the production system. If the NPC is greater than 1.0 for the production system, then there are net benefits from the system for human populations with an ever-increasing requirement for protein and amino acids. The aim of this paper was to calculate the NPC for an Australian pork supply chain on the basis of the unique characteristics of Australian ingredients. While calculation of NPC is not complex, intimate knowledge of the source of the nutrients and their quality, and interpretation of their human-edible protein fractions is essential if an accurate estimate is to be achieved. The NPC for an Australian pork supply chain was calculated using (a) actual, published or estimated values for human-edible fractions of feedstuffs, (b) the percentage of protein available within raw materials considered to be human edible, (c) recommended amino acid scoring patterns for infants, adolescents and adults, (d) published, and calculated from standard reference nutrient databases, digestible indispensable amino acid scores, (e) carcase yields and carcase composition from published studies, and (f) actual feed formulations, feed volumes and production data from a large Australian pork supply chain. The NPC for the assessed Australian pork supply chain was 3.26. This means the supply chain generates more than three times the human-edible protein it consumes in the process. This NPC is higher than previously published values, largely because of the composition of Australian pig diets, but demonstrates the positive value that livestock production systems make to human food supply. Livestock systems are often targeted as net consumers of vital nutrients such as protein and amino acids and the diversion of these nutrients from human diets. If production systems focus on the utilisation of waste streams, co-products and human-inedible feedstuffs, then they can make a net contribution to human-edible protein supply.
... For ethanol, Fig. 3, as the gasoline alternative, it also appeared that emission factors (from 25 to 65 gCO 2eq /MJ) vary depending on the type of biomass from which ethanol is produced and not on the conversion process that is invariably fermentation. Beer et al., 2007;Bio Intelligence Service, 2011;European Commission, 2009;Hou et al., 2011;Lee Chang et al., 2015;Mata et al., 2011;Styles et al., 2015;Tokunaga & Konan, 2014); Algae biodiesel (Adesanya et al., 2014;Azadi et al., 2014;Collet et al., 2014;Hou et al., 2011;Lee Chang et al., 2015;Mata et al., 2011;Passell et al., 2013;Soratana et al., 2013;Tu et al., 2018;Wu et al., 2018;Yuan et al., 2015); Cooking oil biodiesel (Beer et al., 2007;Bhonsle et al., 2022;Bobadilla et al., 2021;European Commission, 2009;Ou et al., 2009;Whitaker et al., 2010); Soybean biodiesel (European Commission, 2009;Hou et al., 2011;Mata et al., 2011;Ou et al., 2009;Panichelli et al., 2009;Tokunaga & Konan, 2014;Zhang et al., 2022); Jatropha biodiesel (Chatterjee et al., 2014;Hagman et al., 2013;Hou et al., 2011;Ou et al., 2009;Tokunaga & Konan, 2014); Rapeseed biodiesel (Beer et al., 2007;Chatterjee et al., 2014;Elsayed et al., 2003;European Commission, 2009;Malça et al., 2014;Mata et al., 2011;Styles et al., 2015;Whitaker et al., 2010); Palm oil biodiesel (Achten et al., 2010;Anyaoha & Zhang, 2022;Arpornpong et al., 2015;Beer et al., 2007;Chatterjee et al., 2014;Choo et al., 2011;European Commission, 2009;Hassan et al., 2011;Mata et al., 2011;Permpool & Gheewala, 2017 Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved. ...
... For ethanol, Fig. 3, as the gasoline alternative, it also appeared that emission factors (from 25 to 65 gCO 2eq /MJ) vary depending on the type of biomass from which ethanol is produced and not on the conversion process that is invariably fermentation. Beer et al., 2007;Bio Intelligence Service, 2011;European Commission, 2009;Hou et al., 2011;Lee Chang et al., 2015;Mata et al., 2011;Styles et al., 2015;Tokunaga & Konan, 2014); Algae biodiesel (Adesanya et al., 2014;Azadi et al., 2014;Collet et al., 2014;Hou et al., 2011;Lee Chang et al., 2015;Mata et al., 2011;Passell et al., 2013;Soratana et al., 2013;Tu et al., 2018;Wu et al., 2018;Yuan et al., 2015); Cooking oil biodiesel (Beer et al., 2007;Bhonsle et al., 2022;Bobadilla et al., 2021;European Commission, 2009;Ou et al., 2009;Whitaker et al., 2010); Soybean biodiesel (European Commission, 2009;Hou et al., 2011;Mata et al., 2011;Ou et al., 2009;Panichelli et al., 2009;Tokunaga & Konan, 2014;Zhang et al., 2022); Jatropha biodiesel (Chatterjee et al., 2014;Hagman et al., 2013;Hou et al., 2011;Ou et al., 2009;Tokunaga & Konan, 2014); Rapeseed biodiesel (Beer et al., 2007;Chatterjee et al., 2014;Elsayed et al., 2003;European Commission, 2009;Malça et al., 2014;Mata et al., 2011;Styles et al., 2015;Whitaker et al., 2010); Palm oil biodiesel (Achten et al., 2010;Anyaoha & Zhang, 2022;Arpornpong et al., 2015;Beer et al., 2007;Chatterjee et al., 2014;Choo et al., 2011;European Commission, 2009;Hassan et al., 2011;Mata et al., 2011;Permpool & Gheewala, 2017 Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved. ...
... For ethanol, Fig. 3, as the gasoline alternative, it also appeared that emission factors (from 25 to 65 gCO 2eq /MJ) vary depending on the type of biomass from which ethanol is produced and not on the conversion process that is invariably fermentation. Beer et al., 2007;Bio Intelligence Service, 2011;European Commission, 2009;Hou et al., 2011;Lee Chang et al., 2015;Mata et al., 2011;Styles et al., 2015;Tokunaga & Konan, 2014); Algae biodiesel (Adesanya et al., 2014;Azadi et al., 2014;Collet et al., 2014;Hou et al., 2011;Lee Chang et al., 2015;Mata et al., 2011;Passell et al., 2013;Soratana et al., 2013;Tu et al., 2018;Wu et al., 2018;Yuan et al., 2015); Cooking oil biodiesel (Beer et al., 2007;Bhonsle et al., 2022;Bobadilla et al., 2021;European Commission, 2009;Ou et al., 2009;Whitaker et al., 2010); Soybean biodiesel (European Commission, 2009;Hou et al., 2011;Mata et al., 2011;Ou et al., 2009;Panichelli et al., 2009;Tokunaga & Konan, 2014;Zhang et al., 2022); Jatropha biodiesel (Chatterjee et al., 2014;Hagman et al., 2013;Hou et al., 2011;Ou et al., 2009;Tokunaga & Konan, 2014); Rapeseed biodiesel (Beer et al., 2007;Chatterjee et al., 2014;Elsayed et al., 2003;European Commission, 2009;Malça et al., 2014;Mata et al., 2011;Styles et al., 2015;Whitaker et al., 2010); Palm oil biodiesel (Achten et al., 2010;Anyaoha & Zhang, 2022;Arpornpong et al., 2015;Beer et al., 2007;Chatterjee et al., 2014;Choo et al., 2011;European Commission, 2009;Hassan et al., 2011;Mata et al., 2011;Permpool & Gheewala, 2017 Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved. ...
Reducing environmental impacts in transport motivates many studies to offer more sustainable freight services. However, most methodologies focus on impacts from fuel consumption, and approaches trying to integrate other transport components have not facilitated its application to actual and specific transport services. In this study, we present a harmonized approach to address the transport services with a holistic way to increase the knowledge about hotspots of the transport sector based on the life cycle assessment methodology. In this framework, vehicle manufacturing, fuel production, and infrastructure construction are the key transport components around the traffic process. Besides fuel usage, the operation and maintenance of vehicles and infrastructures are also included. We developed a tool to create the life cycle inventories for each transport component to be applied to specific transport services in any location with a comprehensive view and low uncertainty in the results. This approach was applied to road-freight services in Colombia, Malaysia, and Spain. The main results showed the nature and origin of the environmental impacts, which are highly influenced by the emissions control technologies, road characteristics, and traffic volume. The contribution of atmospheric pollutants per tonne-km can decrease by a quarter when Euro VI trucks on highways instead of conventional trucks on single-lane roads are used. However, these contributions are highly affected by fuel production due to the origin of biofuels. The proposed methodology provides relevant information to estimate transport impacts in the life cycle assessment of products with superior precision and identify strategies for systemically improving sustainability.
... Taking out 30% of this actual coconut oil production, only 3500 tonnes would be available to be used for biodiesel production, provided that no coconut oil is exported. Then taking coconut oil density as 0.92 kg/l and biodiesel yield from coconut oil as 80% (Beer et al., 2007), only 3 million litres of biodiesel can be produced annually with the current oil production. However (GoF, 2013), reports that only 35% of the total annual nut production (250 million/year) is used for copra production from which coconut oil is produced. ...
Road transport in Fiji is fully dependent on petroleum fuels. This study is a first for Fiji where fuel demand for land transport is studied under some clean transportation strategies. Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning (LEAP) tool is used with 2016 as the base year and 2040 as the end year. In 2016, approximately 337 million litres of fuel was used with an associated GHG emission of around 864 Gg of CO2e, which increases to 1158.4 Gg by 2040 in Business as usual (BAU) scenario. Several measures are explored to reduce the fuel consumption in the land transport sector in Fiji.
... The most commonly used biomass fuels are biodiesel, alcohols (e.g., methanol, ethanol, and butanol), dimethyl ether, and 2, 5-dimethylfuran (DMF). However, the costs of the raw materials and esterification technology used in production of biodiesel are expensive [27,28]. The strong water absorption capacities, high volatilities, high nitrogen oxide (NO x ) emissions, and low heating values of methanol and ethanol restrict their application [29,30]. ...
... The used cooking oil is chemically treated to create a biodiesel similar to petroleum diesel (Kheang et al., 2006). Biodiesel made from palm oil grown on sustainable non-forest land and from established plantations effectively reduces greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) (Beer et al., 2007). According to Greenpeace (2007), clearing peat land to plant oil palms releases large amounts of greenhouse gasses, and that biodiesel produced from oil palms grown on this land may not result in a net reduction of GHG. ...
... The used cooking oil is chemically treated to create a biodiesel similar to petroleum diesel (Kheang et al., 2006). Biodiesel made from palm oil grown on sustainable non-forest land and from established plantations effectively reduces greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) (Beer et al., 2007). According to Greenpeace (2007), clearing peat land to plant oil palms releases large amounts of greenhouse gasses, and that biodiesel produced from oil palms grown on this land may not result in a net reduction of GHG. ...
Consumption and use of natural resources is a high concerning issue in modern days. Increase in fuel price, limited resources of fossil oil and great concerns on environmental matters has led the researchers and scientists to concerted and escalating research and development efforts in search of renewable and environmental friendly alternative energy sources. In this connection, recent strong demand for renewable fuels has resulted in increased production of biofuels worldwide for solving transportation fuel problems. Currently, biofuels from palm oil is being established as a great source of alternative fuel. Palm oil can be used to produce biodiesel, which is also known as palm oil methyl ester. Palm oil biodiesel is often blended with other fuels to create palm oil biodiesel blends. This paper highlights on biofuel/biodiesel production from palm oil, use, advantages and limitations.
... In addition, Beer et al. (2007) show that the use of biodiesel will provide potential benefits to human health due to the reduction of particulate materials released to the atmosphere which a result of fuels, which are burned in the transport industry. ...
In conclusion, the purpose of this research was to review one of the main recent important technologies for renewable energy sources, which is the bioenergy system. This essay presented the historical improvements of the use of the energy sources over the life of human beings starting from firewood, fossil fuel into renewable energy, particularly bioenergy sources. To analyse key points of the importance of the use of this renewable bioenergy, the main issues and challenges related to fossil fuels, had been discussed. Moreover, this paper has defined and described bioenergy systems. The most significant systems of bioenergy were discussed and analysed which included: liquid biofuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel. In addition, as a consequence of this new technology over last decades, the most important implications and impacts particularly on the environment were explained.
This essay has shown theoretically the viability of the use of bioenergy systems in order to overcome and mitigate the main issues related to the use of fossil fuel as an energy source. In other words, bioenergy systems have been found owing to address the most important problems related to fossil fuel such as climate change, global warming, oil prices and pollution. Indeed, it could be argued that bioenergy has been succeeded in overcoming some of these challenges.
However, this essay lacks the cost estimations for bioenergy productions and lacks the economical comparisons between bioenergy systems particularly, and other types of renewable energy sources. These comparisons could be conducted to approach the optimum efficiency for this technology in the future.
... Biodiesel fuel can be sourced from an array of edible and non-edible feedstocks including the following: canola, tallow, palm and Pongamia [10]. Biodiesel fuels are easy to handle, can be blended with petrodiesel fuel, require no modification to diesel engines, produce low emissions including particulates, have high cetane number and high lubricity and are biodegradable and non-toxic [8,10,34]. ...
Pongamia (Millettia pinnata) has been widely studied as a potential feedstock for biodiesel fuel, though little is known about its feasibility at a commercial level. Capital budgeting and cash flow analysis was conducted for a potential Pongamia plantation and crushing plant in Queensland, Australia. For annual seed yields ranging from 20 to 80 kg (in shell) per tree, the delivered cost of Pongamia oil was estimated to be between AUD 0.64 per litre. The seed yield range of 20 to 80 kg per tree is roughly equivalent to between 7 and 29 t per hectare at a planting density of 357 trees per hectare. Major components of the delivered cost of (Pongamia) oil are the capital expenses of land acquisition, plantation establishment and the crushing plant construction. The major operational costs include mechanical harvesting; fertiliser; control of weed, pests and diseases; seed crushing; and freight of oil to a refinery. The cost items with the greatest volume sensitivity are the capital expenses, overheads (consisting mostly of salaries and wages of employees) and the expenses associated with harvesting and crushing operations. These costs could be significantly reduced if the seed yield could be increased. Several scenarios were tested to demonstrate the effect of seed yield and oil price on the profitability and cash flow of the Pongamia enterprise. At most plausible oil prices and seed yields, Pongamia oil is not expected to be economically viable.
... Other reports indicate a WTW emission reduction of approximately 75% for biodiesel from animal fat, including beef tallow 70,71 as a feedstock and 87% for waste cooking oil. 70 Based on these studies, we assumed an 18% reduction in fossil diesel WTW CO 2 emissions for biodiesel produced from waste animal fat. Thus, instead of the 737.6 kt WTW CO 2 emissions from fossil diesel, 145.3 kt WTW CO 2 would be emitted from the 216.0 kt biodiesel that could be produced from the annually generated beef cattle and fowl waste fat. ...
The purpose of this research was to perform a preliminary inventory of the waste fat generated from beef cattle and fowl in Mexico that could be used for biodiesel production. Additionally, the CO2 emission reductions that could be achieved by using the potential biodiesel to replace an energy-equivalent amount of fossil diesel are estimated. Based on national reports for the year 2014, it was estimated that the non-edible fat from beef cattle and fowl annually generated in Mexico is sufficient to produce 216.0 kt of biodiesel, which would furnish 8379 TJ. This amount is equivalent to 1.5% of the energy annually consumed in Mexico as fossil diesel for road transport. The potential 216.0 kt of animal fat-based biodiesel that can be produced annually could replace 198.3 kt of fossil diesel and thus allow a reduction in the WTW (well to wheels) emissions of 592.3 kt CO2, which represents 1.5% of the WTW CO2 annually emitted in Mexico from consumption of fossil diesel for road transport.
... The soluble organic fraction of the emitted particles is also commonly a greater percentage in biodiesel exhaust emissions (Durbin et al., 1999). However, recent studies have shown that the physical and chemical characteristics of biodiesel exhaust have certain adverse effects on the environment and may be dangerous to human health (Larcombe et al., 2015;Beer et al., 2007). There is increasing evidence that, whereas the mass of particles produced by combusting biodiesel is characteristically less than that produced from combusting of petroleum diesel, the number concentration and surface area of particles may be greater, thereby producing more severe health effects (Hawley et al., 2014;Mullins et al., 2014;Larcombe et al., 2015;Cheung et al., 2009). ...
