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Evaluating and testing hydration status is increasingly requested by rehabilitation, sport, military and performance-related activities. Besides commonly used biochemical hydration assessment markers within blood and urine, which have their advantages and limitations in collection and evaluating hydration status, there are other potential markers p...
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... decrease was observed in diabetic in comparison to menopausal human female subjects. The result revealed that the total protein was considered as testing the saliva instead Introduction s a diagnostic fluids Body fluids like blood, saliva, tears, sweat and urine are a source of pathological biochemical markers in which saliva is an excellent biological fluid that is useful for noninvasive exploration of the human diseases and physiological conditions (Villiger et al., 2018). Salivary protein concentration is dependent on gland production at time of day, diet, age, gender and presence of disease (Ferreiro et al., 2002). ...
Saliva has been studied extensively as a potential diagnostic tool over the last decade due to its ease and non-invasive accessibility along with its abundance of biomarkers, such as genetic material and proteins.The activity of protein in saliva increased during ovulation. When we monitored salivary protein activity in 40 different women volunteers during various stages of reproduction like (prepubertal, parous, non-parous, menopausal and in the metabolic disorder state diabetic condition it has been observed that highly significant (p<0.001) increase in parous ovulatory & non parous ovulatory whereas, highly significant (p<0.01)increase was observed in non-parous postovulatory and a highly significant (p<0.001) decrease was observed in menopause and diabetic in comparison to prepubertal. A highly significant (p<0.001) decrease was observed in menopause in comparison to parous preovulatory, ovulatory, post ovulatory & non-parous ovulatory and postovulatory. A highly significant (p<0.01) decrease was observed in diabetic in comparison to menopausal human female subjects. The result revealed that the total protein was considered as testing the saliva instead of blood isa non-invasive loom and it can be used as a biomarker for ovulation detection.
... Blood biomarkers of hemoconcentration, such as blood osmolality and sodium levels, are therefore widely used as an index of dehydration. According to the literature, blood osmolality is a more sensitive marker compared to serum sodium, so it can be used to monitor the level of hydration in athletes [29][30][31]. Recently, experiments have been performed on the analysis of salivary osmolality, salivary flow rate, sweat, and tears. ...
... Recently, experiments have been performed on the analysis of salivary osmolality, salivary flow rate, sweat, and tears. These methods may represent useful improvements in the measurement of hydration status in sports since sampling is non-invasive; their sensitivity and specificity have yet to be clarified [29,31]. ...
Hemoconcentration during exercise is a well-known phenomenon, however, the extent to which dehydration is involved is unclear. In our study, the effect of dehydration on exercise-induced hemoconcentration was examined in 12 elite Hungarian kayak-canoe athletes. The changes of blood markers were examined during acute maximal workload in hydrated and dehydrated states. Dehydration was achieved by exercise, during a 120-minute extensive-aerobic preload. Our research is one of the first studies in which the changes in blood components were examined with a higher time resolution and a wider range of the measured parameters. Hydration status had no effect on the dynamics of hemoconcentration during both the hydrated (HS) and dehydrated (DHS) load, although lower maximal power output were measured after the 120-minute preload [HS Hemoglobin(Hgb)Max median 17.4 (q1 17.03; q3 17.9) g/dl vs. DHS HgbMax median 16.9 (q1 16.43; q3 17.6) g/dl (n.s); HS Hematocrit(Hct)Max 53.50 (q1 52.28; q3 54.8) % vs. DHS HctMax 51.90 (q1 50.35; q3 53.93) % (n.s)]. Thirty minutes after the maximal loading, complete hemodilution was confirmed in both exercises. Dehydration had no effect on hemoconcentration or hemodilution in the recovery period [HS HgbR30' 15.7 (q1 15.15; q3 16.05) g/dl (n.s.) vs. DHS HgbR30' 15.75 (q1 15.48; q3 16.13) g/dl (n.s.), HS HctR30' 48.15 (q1 46.5; q3 49.2) % vs. DHS HctR30' 48.25 (q1 47.48; q3 49.45) % (n.s.)], however, plasma osmolality did not follow a corresponding decrease in hemoglobin and hematocrit in the dehydrated group. Based on our data, metabolic products (glucose, lactate, sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate ion, blood urea nitrogen) induced osmolality may not play a major role in the regulation of hemoconcentration and post-exercise hemodilution. From our results, we can conclude that hemoconcentration depends mainly on the intensity of the exercise.
... -Difficult to obtain samples during exercise -USG is still not a true reflection of dehydration when compared to blood markers Saliva -Non-invasive method -Saliva osmolality is an effective hydration assessment marker during active heat exposure [140] -Highly variable between participants and collection methods ...
Physiological and biological markers in different body fluids are used to measure the body’s physiological or pathological status. In the field of sports and exercise medicine, the use of these markers has recently become more popular for monitoring an athlete’s training response and assessing the immediate or long-term effects of exercise. Although the effect of exercise on different physiological markers using various body fluids is well substantiated, no article has undertaken a review across multiple body fluids such as blood, saliva, urine and sweat. This narrative review aims to assess various physiological markers in blood, urine and saliva, at rest and after exercise and examines physiological marker levels obtained across similar studies, with a focus on the population and study methodology used. Literature searches were conducted using PRISMA guidelines for keywords such as exercise, physical activity, serum, sweat, urine, and biomarkers, resulting in an analysis of 15 studies for this review paper. When comparing the effects of exercise on physiological markers across different body fluids (blood, urine, and saliva), the changes detected were generally in the same direction. However, the extent of the change varied, potentially as a result of the type and duration of exercise, the sample population and subject numbers, fitness levels, and/or dietary intake. In addition, none of the studies used solely female participants; instead, including males only or both male and female subjects together. The results of some physiological markers are sex-dependent. Therefore, to better understand how the levels of these biomarkers change in relation to exercise and performance, the sex of the participants should also be taken into consideration.
... However, little research has been conducted on why we stop drinking during rehydration. Combined changes in body weight and volume consumption are the most common measure of exerciserelated dehydration [1][2][3], but there are also other ways to measure dehydration. Some of them involve laboratory techniques such as urine and plasma osmolality [2,4], while others are more practical, such urine specific gravity (USG) and urine color [5,6]. ...
Post-exercise rehydration has been widely studied, with particular emphasis on retention of ingested fluid; comparatively little research has been conducted on why we drink more or less. To identify physiological values corresponding to voluntary drinking cessation (VDC), nine males exercised intermittently at 70–80% HRmax in the heat (WBGT = 28.1 ± 0.7 °C) to achieve a dehydration of approximately 4.0% body mass (BM). After exercise, participants were instructed to drink water as long and as much as they needed. Urine color (Ucolor), specific gravity (USG), osmolality (Uosm), plasma osmolality (Posm), fullness, BM, and thirst perception (TP) were measured pre- and post-exercise and at VDC. Each variable was compared for the three points in time with a one-way ANOVA. Participants reached dehydration of −3.6 ± 0.3% BM. Pre-exercise USG (1.022 ± 0.004) was lower than at VDC (1.029 ± 0.004, p = 0.022), Uosm did not change over time (p = 0.217), and Ucolor was lower pre-exercise (3.4 ± 0.7) vs. post-exercise (5.5 ± 1.23, p = 0.0008) and vs. VDC (6.3 ± 1.1, p < 0.0001). Posm showed a difference between pre-exercise (289.5 ± 2.3) and post-exercise (297.8 ± 3.9, p = 0.0006) and between post-exercise and VDC (287.3 ± 5.4, p < 0.0001). TP post-exercise (96.4 ± 4.34) was significantly higher than pre-exercise (36.2 ± 19.1) and VDC (25.0 ± 18.2, p < 0.0001). At VDC, participants had recovered 58.7 ± 12.1% of BM loss. At the point of voluntary drinking cessation, Posm and thirst perception had returned to their pre-exercise values, while rehydration relative to initial BM was still incomplete.
... However, analyses of most of these markers require laboratory examinations and are impractical for field applications. Therefore, many studies have investigated various noninvasive and easy-tosample biomarkers as potential indicators for hydration status, particularly from sweat, saliva or tears [6], [7]. ...
Improper hydration routines can reduce athletic performance. Recent studies show that data from noninvasive biomarker recordings can help to evaluate the hydration status of subjects during endurance exercise. These studies are usually carried out on multiple subjects. In this work, we present the first study on predicting hydration status using machine learning models from single-subject experiments, which involve 32 exercise sessions of constant moderate intensity performed with and without fluid intake. During exercise, we measured four noninvasive physiological and sweat biomarkers including heart rate, core temperature, sweat sodium concentration, and whole-body sweat rate. Sweat sodium concentration was measured from six body regions using absorbent patches. We used three machine learning models to determine the percentage of body weight loss as an indicator of dehydration with these biomarkers and compared the prediction accuracy. The results on this single subject show that these models gave similar mean absolute errors, while in general the nonlinear models slightly outperformed the linear model in most of the experiments. The prediction accuracy of using the whole-body sweat rate or heart rate was higher than using core temperature or sweat sodium concentration. In addition, the model trained on the sweat sodium concentration collected from the arms gave slightly better accuracy than from the other five body regions. This exploratory work paves the way for the use of these machine learning models to develop personalized health monitoring together with emerging, noninvasive wearable sensor devices.
... 50 Sweat is secreted and excreted to the skin surface by sweat glands, which is easy to obtain noninvasively. 51 Rich types of metabolites, such as water, electrolytes, and others, closely related to blood concentration in sweat, 52,53 reflect changes in physiological metabolism. Fatigue biomarkers, such as lactic acid, uric acid, and cortisol, are present in these noninvasive biofluid, based on which abnormal state of humans from multiple aspects can be analyzed. ...
Fatigue causes deleterious effects to physical and mental health of human being and may cause loss of lives. Therefore, the adverse effects of fatigue on individuals and the society are massive. With the ever‐increasing frequency of overtraining among modern military and sports personnel, timely, portable and accurate fatigue diagnosis is essential to avoid fatigue‐induced accidents. However, traditional detection methods require complex sample preparation and blood sampling processes, which cannot meet the timeliness and portability of fatigue diagnosis. With the development of flexible materials and biosensing technology, wearable biosensors have attracted increased attention to the researchers. Wearable biosensors collect biomarkers from noninvasive biofluids, such as sweat, saliva, and tears, followed by biosensing with the help of biosensing modules continuously and quantitatively. The detection signal can then be transmitted through wireless communication modules that constitute a method for real‐time understanding of abnormality. Recent developments of wearable biosensors are focused on miniaturized wearable electrochemistry and optical biosensors for metabolites detection, of which, few have exhibited satisfactory results in medical diagnosis. However, detection performance limits the wide‐range applicability of wearable fatigue diagnosis. In this article, the application of wearable biosensors in fatigue diagnosis has been discussed. In fact, exploration of the composition of different biofluids and their potential toward fatigue diagnosis have been discussed here for the very first time. Moreover, discussions regarding the current bottlenecks in wearable fatigue biosensors and the latest advancements in biochemical reaction and data communication modules have been incorporated herein. Finally, the main challenges and opportunities were discussed for wearable fatigue diagnosis in the future.
... When interpreting urine osmolality and specific gravity it needs to be remembered that these two measurements lag behind plasma osmolality, thus their use in assessing rapid fluid changes is of limited utility [67]. Also, measurements of saliva and tears osmolality provide information concerning decreased body water content, nonetheless, their application is limited by the required hardware availability [68,69]. ...
... It is also not possible to determine the initial parameters that would be the reference point in the case of dehydration. Assessment of tear osmolality seems to be the most promising method but requires further research in order to find a wider application in clinical practice [68]. It seems inevitable that new high-tech devices will be introduced to not only help physicians accurately assess the hydration status, but also to help patients control it at home. ...
Background
This article aims to reveal misconceptions about methods of assessment of hydration status and impact of the water disorders on the progression of kidney disease or renal dysfunction.
Materials and methods
The PubMed database was searched for reviews, meta-analyses and original articles on hydration, volume depletion, fluid overload and diagnostic methods of hydration status, which were published in English.
Results
Based on the results of available literature the relationship between the amount of fluid consumed, and the rate of progression of chronic kidney disease, autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease, and kidney stones disease was discussed. Selected aspects of the assessment of the hydration level in clinical practice based on physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging are presented. The subject of in-hospital fluid therapy is discussed. Based on available randomized studies, an attempt was made to assess, which fluids should be selected for intravenous treatment.
Conclusions
There is some evidence for the beneficial effect of increased water intake in preventing recurrent cystitis and kidney stones, but there are still no convincing data for chronic kidney disease and autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. Further studies are needed to clarify the aforementioned issues and establish a reliable way to assess the volemia and perform suitable fluid therapy.
... Choobbari et al., designed a paper-based microfluidic device that only related to the glucose concentration in the sample without accurately controlling the sample volume and the corresponding detection results could be obtained by analyzing the images captured by a smartphone [186]. Although blood is the most commonly used biological fluid for clinical diagnosis, some patients feel pain, fear, or discomfort when blood is drawn [187]. Saliva contains glucose, a marker for monitoring diabetes, and can be collected painlessly; thus, saliva is preferable to blood for diabetes detection [188]. ...
The early diagnosis of infectious diseases is critical because it can greatly increase recovery rates and prevent the spread of diseases such as COVID-19; however, in many areas with insufficient medical facilities, the timely detection of diseases is challenging. Conventional medical testing methods require specialized laboratory equipment and well-trained operators, limiting the applicability of these tests. Microfluidic point-of-care (POC) equipment can rapidly detect diseases at low cost. This technology could be used to detect diseases in underdeveloped areas to reduce the effects of disease and improve quality of life in these areas. This review details microfluidic POC equipment and its applications. First, the concept of microfluidic POC devices is discussed. We then describe applications of microfluidic POC devices for infectious diseases, cardiovascular diseases, tumors (cancer), and chronic diseases, and discuss the future incorporation of microfluidic POC devices into applications such as wearable devices and telemedicine. Finally, the review concludes by analyzing the present state of the microfluidic field, and suggestions are made. This review is intended to call attention to the status of disease treatment in underdeveloped areas and to encourage the researchers of microfluidics to develop standards for these devices.
... As representative imaging tools, X-ray radiography and computed tomography (CT) are used for the examination of auxiliary and deep tissues (e.g., salivary glands), as well as the detection of tumors 19 . Biochemical detection methods often require tears, saliva, and blood for qualitative and quantitative testing 20 . The application of surgical instruments (e.g., scalpel and electric knife) in the oral and maxillofacial regions, oral cavity, and eye for benign and malignant tumors often requires preoperative anesthesia, followed by surgical tumor removal. ...
Micro/nanodevices have been widely applied for the real-time monitoring of intracellular activities and the delivery of exogenous substances in the past few years. This review focuses on miniaturized micro/nanodevices for assessment and treatment in stomatology and ophthalmology. We first summarize the recent progress in this field by examining the available materials and fabrication techniques, device design principles, mechanisms, and biosafety aspects of micro/nanodevices. Following a discussion of biochemical sensing technology from the cellular level to the tissue level for disease assessment, we then summarize the use of microneedles and other micro/nanodevices in the treatment of oral and ocular diseases and conditions, including oral cancer, eye wrinkles, keratitis, and infections. Along with the identified key challenges, this review concludes with future directions as a small fraction of vast opportunities, calling for joint efforts between clinicians and engineers with diverse backgrounds to help facilitate the rapid development of this burgeoning field in stomatology and ophthalmology.
... Salivary ions are involved in mineralizing enamel and the saliva buffer capacita. Saliva secretion is under the control of oral stimulus, the autonomic nervous system, endocrine system, plasma composition, stress, and hydration [17][18][19] . During saliva secretion, acinar cells release proteins, Cl -, Na + , and K + into the gland lumen. ...
The saliva analysis by Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence (TXRF) for monitoring training loads could be useful due to the ease of sample analysis and a large range of chemical elements can be detected. Twelve BJJ athletes were submitted to 7 weeks of training scheduled with high training loads (weeks 1 to 4) and tapering (weeks 5 to 7). Saliva samples were collected before (Pre), at week 4, and at week 8 (Post), to quantify chemical element concentrations by TXRF. The internal training load was monitored using the session rating of perceived exertion of session (RPE) method for physical and technical-tactical training sessions. All the saliva samples presented Phosphorus (P), Sulfur (S), Chlorine (Cl), Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), Zinc (Zn), Bromine (Br), and Rubidium (Rb) at Pre, 4 weeks and Post time points. Salivary concentrations of Cl, K, Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu), Br, and Rb significantly decreased in 4 weeks (p<0.05); and K, Cu, and Rb concentration remained at low levels at Post (p<0.05). Medium to large Cohen´s effect sizes for decrements in element concentrations from Pre to 4 weeks was observed for all the elements except Zn. Reduced S concentration at 4 weeks was negatively correlated to high training load period (r=-0.56, p=0.05). The results suggest that BJJ training modulates salivary electrolyte composition and salivary P, S and Rb are correlated with training loads in BJJ athletes.Keywords: Ions. Martial Arts. Exercise. Biomarkers. Saliva.ResumoA análise de saliva por meio de Fluorescência de Raios-X de Reflexão Total (TXRF) para monitorar cargas de treinamento pode ser útil devido à facilidade de análise da amostra e a ampla variedade de elementos químicos detectados. Doze atletas de BJJ foram submetidos a 7 semanas de treinamento programado com altas cargas de treinamento (semanas 1 a 4) e polimento (semanas 5 a 7). Amostras de saliva foram coletadas antes (Pré), na semana 4 (Meio) e na semana 8 (Pós), para quantificar as concentrações dos elementos químicos por TXRF. A carga interna de treinamento foi monitorada por meio do método de percepção subjetiva de esforço da sessão (PSE) nas sessões de treinamento físico e técnico-tático. Todas as amostras de saliva apresentaram Fósforo (P), Enxofre (S), Cloro (Cl), Potássio (K), Cálcio (Ca), Zinco (Zn), Bromo (Br) e Rubídio (Rb) no momento Pré, 4 semanas e Pós. As concentrações salivares de Cl, K, Manganês (Mn), Cobre (Cu), Br e Rb diminuíram significativamente em 4 semanas (p <0,05); e a concentração de K, Cu e Rb permaneceram em níveis baixos no Pós (p <0,05). Os tamanhos de efeito de Cohen médio a grande para decréscimos nas concentrações de elementos, de Pré a 4 semanas, foram observados para todos os elementos, exceto para Zn. A redução da concentração de S em 4 semanas foi negativamente correlacionada com o período de alta carga de treinamento (r = -0,56, p = 0,05). Os resultados sugerem que o treinamento de BJJ modula a composição eletrolítica salivar e o P, S e Rb salivares estão correlacionados com as cargas de treinamento no BJJ.Palavras-chave: Íons. Artes Marciais. Exercício. Biomarcadores. Saliva.
