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Fitts and Posner's (1967) model of skill acquisition as a function of the cognitive demands (WM) placed on the learner and his level of experience.
Source publication
The concept of working memory has received a great deal of attention in the last couple of decades and discussions of working memory are now common in almost all branches of psychology, including cognitive, clinical, social, developmental, and educational settings. Therefore, it is surprising that the concept of working memory has received a lot le...
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Context 1
... to an early model of skill acquisition, Fitts and Posner (1967) state that learners proceed through three distinct learning phases that differ in their cognitive demands (see Figure 3). Fitts and Posner (1967) propose that during early stages of learning, motor skills are attended to in a step-by-step fashion and thereby require the application of declarative knowledge. ...
Context 2
... to an early model of skill acquisition, Fitts and Posner (1967) state that learners proceed through three distinct learning phases that differ in their cognitive demands (see Figure 3). Fitts and Posner (1967) propose that during early stages of learning, motor skills are attended to in a step-by-step fashion and thereby require the application of declarative knowledge. ...
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... Spor müsabakalarında yapılan hamleler skor, kalan süre, rakip takımın sahaya dizilişi veya pozisyon gibi çeşitli faktörlere göre değişkenlik gösterdiği için sporcuların sürekli farklı düşünce mekanizmalarını devreye sokarak dinamik bir şekilde karar alması gerekmektedir (Tekin, Özmutlu, & Erhan, 2009). Bununla birlikte sporcuların karar verme becerilerini bireysel ve takım içinde geliştirmeleri doğru kararlar almalarına katkı sunarak sportif başarıyı artırmaktadır (Furley & Memmert, 2010;Konings & Hettinga, 2018). Özellikle stratejiye dayalı satranç, bocce ve curling gibi bilişsel özelliklerin daha yoğun olduğu spor branşlarında karar verme süreçleri son derece önemlidir (Westlund Stewart & Hall, 2017). ...
zet Karar verme, sporcuların performansını belirlenmesinde önemli bir role sahip olduğu için müsabaka sonucunu direkt veya dolaylı olarak etkilemektedir. Bu araştırmanın amacı curling sporcularında karar verme stratejilerinin incelenmesidir. Araştırmaya Dünya Curling Federasyonu (WCF) tarafından 10-17 Ekim 2022 tarihleri arasında İskoçya'nın Aberdeen şehrinde organize edilen Dünya Karışıklar Curling Şampiyonası'na katılan 104 curling sporcusu dâhil edilmiştir. Araştırmada sporcuların karar verme stillerinin değerlendirilmesi için Mann ve ark. tarafından geliştirilen Melborune Karar Verme Ölçeği-II (MKVÖ-II) kullanılmıştır. Google Forms aracılığıyla toplanan verilerin analizi için JASP 0.15.0.0 istatistik analiz yazılımı kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen veriler normal dağılım gösterdiği için parametrik testlerden bağımsız örneklem t-testi ve ANOVA uygulanmıştır. Katılımcıların şampiyona performansına göre karşılaştırıldığı araştırmada Melbourne Karar Verme Ölçeği-II alt boyutları olan dikkatli, kaçıngan, erteleyici ve panik karar verme stili toplam ortalama puanlarında başarılı sporcular lehine istatistiksel olarak anlamlı düzeyde fark olduğu tespit edilmiştir (p<.01). Araştırmada ölçek alt boyutları toplam ortalama puanlarının spor yaşına göre on yıldan uzun süre curling oynayan sporcular lehine istatistiksel olarak anlamlı derecede farklılaştığı gözlemlenmiştir (p<.01). Araştırma sonucunda curling gibi yoğun bilişsel süreçleri, hızlı ve doğru karar verebilme becerisini gerektiren bir hedef sporunda başarı düzeyi yüksek ve daha tecrübeli sporcuların diğerlerine göre dikkatli karar verme stilini daha fazla kullandığı; kaçıngan, erteleyici ve panik karar verme stillerini ise daha az kullandığı ifade edilebilir. Abstract Decision-making plays a crucial role in determining athletes' performance and can directly or indirectly affect the outcome of a sport event. The purpose of this study is to examine decision-making strategies in curling athletes. The study included 104 curling athletes who participated in the World Mixed Curling Championship organized by the World Curling Federation (WCF) in Aberdeen, Scotland, from October 10th to 17th, 2022. The Melbourne Decision Making Questionnaire-II, developed by Mann et al., was utilized to evaluate the athletes' decision-making styles. Data collected via Google Forms was analyzed using the JASP 0.15.0.0 statistical analysis software. Since the obtained data showed a normal distribution, independent sample t-tests and ANOVA were applied. When participants were compared based on their championship performance, a statistically significant difference was observed in favor of successful athletes in the total average scores of the MDMQ-II sub-dimensions: vigilant, hypervigilant, procrastinating, and buck passing styles (p<.01). The research also revealed that the total average scores of the scale sub-dimensions differed significantly in favor of athletes who have played curling for more than ten years based on their experience (p<.01). In conclusion, in a target sport like curling, which requires intensive cognitive processes and the ability to make quick and accurate decisions, it can be stated that athletes with a high success level and more experience tend to use the vigilant decision-making style more often, while using the hypervigilant, procrastinating, and buck passing decision making styles less frequently.
... Decision making in game play requires the use of working memory to complete a task (Furley & Memmert, 2010). Athletes with higher working memory capacities are better able to block out distractions and focus their attention on making better tactical decisions (Furley & Memmert, 2012). ...
Cognitive general imagery includes game plans, strategies, and routines. Mental imagery of strategies of play can decrease reaction time and lead to better decision making, ultimately resulting in enhanced performance.
... 422). Furley and Memmert (2010) argued that the field of team sports is a promising avenue for testing and advancing cognitive psychological theories. Along these lines, Furley and Memmert (2012) were the first to employ dynamic tactical decision-making tasks to study the role of WMC in the tactical performance of team-ball sports. ...
Athletic skills acquired through deliberate practice are essential for expert sports performance. Some authors even suggest that practice circumvents the limits of working memory capacity (WMC) in skill acquisition. However, this circumvention hypothesis has been challenged recently by the evidence that WMC plays an important role in expert performance in complex domains such as arts and sports. Here, we have used two dynamic soccer tactical tasks to explore the effect of WMC on tactical performance at different levels of expertise. As expected, professional soccer players exhibited better tactical performance than amateur and recreational players. Furthermore, WMC predicted faster and more accurate tactical decisions in the task under auditory distraction and faster tactical decisions in the task without distraction. Importantly, lack of expertise × WMC interaction suggests that the WMC effect exists at all levels of expertise. Our results speak against the circumvention hypothesis and support a model of independent contributions of WMC and deliberate practice on expert performance in sports.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s41235-023-00473-2.
... Erste Studien weisen darauf hin, dass das Arbeitsgedächtnis eine entscheidende Rolle für das taktische Entscheidungsverhalten spielen könnte (Furley & Memmert, 2012, 2013, da es in direktem Bezug zur Aufmerksamkeitskontrolle steht. Demzufolge können taktische Anweisungen des Trainers den Aufmerksamkeitsfokus dirigieren und das taktische Entscheidungsverhalten beeinflussen (Furley & Memmert, 2010 Fitts' und Posners (1967) Modell des motorischen Lernens. (Furley & Memmert, 2010) Eine wichtige Leistung in Mannschaftsspielen wie Fußball oder Hockey ist es, Spielkonstellationen frühzeitig in ihrer Entstehung zu erkennen. ...
... Demzufolge können taktische Anweisungen des Trainers den Aufmerksamkeitsfokus dirigieren und das taktische Entscheidungsverhalten beeinflussen (Furley & Memmert, 2010 Fitts' und Posners (1967) Modell des motorischen Lernens. (Furley & Memmert, 2010) Eine wichtige Leistung in Mannschaftsspielen wie Fußball oder Hockey ist es, Spielkonstellationen frühzeitig in ihrer Entstehung zu erkennen. Demzufolge können erfahrene Mannschaftssportler bedeutungsvolle Spielkonstellationen besser und schneller erkennen als weniger erfahrene Sportspieler. ...
Leonie Schwertmann, Nike Lorenz, Timo Boll, Joshua Kimmich, Leon Draisaitl, Uwe Gensheimer oder Angelique Kerber gelingt es scheinbar mühelos, ungewöhnliche, aber auch technisch-taktische Bestlösungen auf dem Spielfeld zu generieren, ganz nach dem Motto: „Just do it!“ Nicht allen Sportlern, unabhängig von ihrem Leistungsniveau, gelingt es aber, optimale motorische Entscheidungshandlungen unter höchstem Zeit-, Präzisions-, Variabilitäts- Belastungs- und Gegnerdruck zu treffen. Hier stellt sich für viele Lehrer und Trainer die Aufgabe, Fehlerquellen angemessen zu analysieren, sie vergleichend zu diagnostizieren und sie abschließend effektiv durch Training zu beheben.
... To do this, we used three different versions of a working memory task (n-back task) because of its relevance to DT performance in daily activities. Working memory is defined as a cognitive mechanism where information is temporarily stored and manipulated under attentional control in an active state for use in ongoing tasks (Furley & Memmert, 2010;Luxton et al., 2014). Children in daily life perform various working memory tasks while walking (e.g., remembering a shopping list or performing an arithmetic task). ...
This study aimed to determine the role of resource conflict in dual-task (DT) effects on gait and concurrent tasks in children and adolescents. Gait was evaluated with and without concurrent tasks (visual-manual, visual-vocal and auditory-vocal). The roles of condition (single vs dual) and type of concurrent task in DT effect were tested by Repeated Measured of ANOVA. Relative changes from single to DT conditions were compared using One-Way ANOVA. There were significant reductions in gait speed, cadence, and stride length, and increases in double support time, step time and variability in step time, and no change in variability in stride length, step width, and concurrent task performance from single to DT conditions. DT effects on gait parameters and concurrent tasks were comparable across DT conditions.
... during sport because athletes may need to retrieve relevant memories to interpret the situation and process information quickly in the decision-making process (Furley & Memmert, 2010). However, inconsistent with our hypothesis, participants with ID did not improve their performance in the digit span task after training program. ...
This study investigated the cognitive effect of a unified flag football program in young adults with intellectual disabilities (ID). Twelve participants practiced football drills with their typical peers for 50 min each session, twice a week for 15 weeks. Measures of three aspects of executive functions (e.g., verbal working memory, measured as digit span task; cognitive planning proficiency, measured as Tower of London task; and response inhibition, measured as Stroop color and word task) were tested before and after the program. Although the benefits in the digit span and Stroop tasks were not seen, participants with ID significantly improved performance in the Tower of London task. The cognitive benefits in executive function from this unified sport program were still evident. Our preliminary findings encourage individuals with ID to attend sport programs for mental health. In future studies, large sample size and additional supporting measures should be included to generalize the findings to the general population with ID.
... M capacity is the maximum number of schemes (units of cognition) that one individual can co-activate and increases by one unit every 2 years, starting from 3 years of age. Since performing complex motor skills generates a high cognitive load (due to multiple motor schemes to be co-activated), some authors have studied the role of WM in sport [for a review, see Furley and Memmert (2010)]. Bisagno and Morra (2018) conducted a study on a sample of youth female volleyball players within the TCO framework where WM was the main predictor underlying the correct execution of a series of attacks. ...
Developmental and cognitive psychology recently started to take an interest in the sports domain, exploring the role of either cognitive functions or emotions in youth sport. However, to the extent that cognition and emotions are inextricably linked, studying them jointly from a developmental perspective could inform on their interplay in determining performance in different sports. This research examined the role of general cognitive abilities, attentional style, and emotions (controlling for age and experience), in predicting performance in youth volleyball and artistic gymnastics. A total of 218 female participants, of which 114 volleyball players and 104 artistic gymnasts (11–17 years old) were administered two measures of working memory and six measures of executive functions (namely inhibition, updating, and shifting). They also completed an attentional style and an emotion-related questionnaire. For each volleyball player, an individual performance index based on every gesture performed during the games and controlled for the team performance was computed. As a measure of gymnasts’ performance, scores in 2017–2018 competitions were used. Regression analysis showed that the main predictor of the volleyball players’ performance (R2 = 0.23) was a working memory-updating factor (ß = 0.45, p = 0.001), together with experience (ß = 0.29, p = 0.030) and high-arousal unpleasant emotions (ß = 0.30, p = 0.029), which positively predicted performance. Experience (ß = 0.30, p = 0.011), age (ß = −0.036, p = 0.005) and high-arousal unpleasant emotions (ß = −0.27, p = 0.030) were the predictors of gymnasts’ performance (R2 = 0.25). These results represent a first step in understanding if and how youth female athletes of open- and closed-skills sports rely on different psychological abilities. This line of research could offer insight to practitioners regarding which psychological abilities could be more relevant to train depending on the type of sport.
... Additionally, during testing shoes were not standardized and may influence hopping performance. The Space Task was designed to only challenge key components of visual working memory and rapid visual encoding, which are commonly utilized in sport performance (Furley and Memmert, 2010;Mann et al., 2007;Williams et al., 1999). However, successful sport participation relies on many other visual-cognitive processes that are difficult to integrate into a single clinical test. ...
Objectives
To develop and evaluate the reliability of a new visual-cognitive medial side hop (VCMH) test that challenges physical and cognitive performance to potentially improve return to sport testing.
Design
Test-retest experimental design.
Setting
Laboratory.
Participants
Twenty-two healthy college students participated (11 females; 23.5 ± 3.64 years; 172.9 ± 11.58 cm; 74.1 ± 17.25 kg; Tegner Score 5.6 ± 1.1).
Main outcome measures
Subjects performed a medial side hop for distance with and without a visual-cognitive task (VCMH). Maximum hop distance and cognitive errors were measured.
Results
There was strong reliability for the traditional medial side hop (ICC3,1 = 0.88[0.72, 0.95]; SEM = 7.16 cm) and VCMH distances (ICC3,1 = 0.86[0.66, 0.94]; SEM = 6.82 cm). Maximum hop distance was significantly lower during the VCMH (86.9 ± 18.2 cm) compared to the traditional medial side hop (96.3 ± 20.7 cm; p < 0.05; d = 0.74), with a performance deficit of 9.69%.
Conclusion
The VCMH has high test-retest reliability and resulted in a significant dual-task cost with a reduction in physical performance when compared to the traditional medial side hop.
... Athletes in dynamic team sports like soccer, basketball or hockey need to perform sophisticated dribbling, aiming or shooting tasks while keeping an eye on the position of their opponents, in order to arrive at optimal strategic decisions. These situations require attention (Abernethy, 2001;, anticipation (Loffing & Canal-Bruland, 2017;Müller & Abernethy, 2012), working memory (Buszard et al., 2017;Furley & Memmert, 2010), and decision making (Baker et al., 2003). Experienced athletes are more successful than novices to handle these challenges, which is one reason why they outperform others on the playing field. ...
Theories on resource sharing predict that performances will suffer under dual-task conditions. However, increases in skill level should decrease attentional resources needed to perform a task, resulting in a reduction of dual-task costs. The current study investigates whether table tennis experts are better able than novices to keep up their motor and cognitive performances in a dual-task situation. Two different cognitive tasks, 3-back and Counting Backwards in steps of 7, and two different table tennis tasks, returns and serves, were assessed in each possible cognitive-motor task combination in a within-subjects design. While 3-back and returns were timed, Counting Backwards and serves were self-initiated. We assumed that self-initiated tasks increase dual-task costs, since the scheduling of the responses requires attentional resources. As predicted, dual-task costs of novices were considerably higher (35%) than those of experts, who did not show costs (−1%). The predicted increase of costs for self-initiated tasks was only observed in the experts, while novices showed a tendency to reduce their dual-task costs for self-initiated tasks. It is argued that this is due to the psychometric properties of the underlying task, since timed tasks were specified by a fixed number of targets and responses. We conclude that cognitive-motor dual-task costs may be a valuable measure of sporting skill, over and above “pure” motor or cognitive performances.
... For example, an athlete has to anticipate where and with what spin the next ball will be returned by the opponent while running to the position with the best option to reach the ball. These exemplary situations depict that various cognitive skills like anticipation (Loffing & Cañal-Bruland, 2017;Müller & Abernethy, 2012;Williams & Jackson, 2019), attention (Abernethy, 2001;Nougier et al., 1991;Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977), working memory (Buszard et al., 2017;Furley & Memmert, 2010;Furley & Wood, 2016), and episodic memory are needed during sport specific situations. ...
Dual-process theories predict performance reductions under dual-task situations (= situations where two tasks have to be processed and executed simultaneously), because limited cognitive resources have to be shared between concurrent tasks. Increases in expertise should reduce the attentional resources needed to perform a motor task, leading to reduced dual-task costs. The current studies investigated whether expert tennis players (performance ratings of 1 to 14 in the German system) show smaller costs compared to intermediate players (performance ratings of 15 to 23). Two studies assessed single- and dual-task performance in a within-subject design in the same tennis task, returning balls into a target field. Two different cognitive tasks were used, a 3-back working memory task in study 1, and a vocabulary-learning task (episodic memory) in study 2. As predicted, performance in both cognitive tasks was reduced during dual-tasking, while the accuracy of tennis returns remained stable under cognitive challenge. These findings indicate that skilled tennis players show a task-prioritization strategy in favor of the tennis task in a dual-task situation. In study 1, intermediate players showed higher overall dual-task costs than experts, but the group differences in dual-task costs did not reach significance in study 2. This may have been due to less pronounced expertise-differences between the groups in study 2. The findings replicate and extend previous expertise studies in sports to the domain of tennis. We argue that an athlete's ability to keep up cognitive and motor performances in challenging dual-task situations may be a valid indicator of skill level.
