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First recording of action potential from the nerve made by Julius Bernstein [6, 52]; original images were kindly provided by Prof. Bernd Nilius, University of Leuven. a The Bernstein rheotome; b the recording of an action potential. The τ 1 and τ 2 indicate "sampling" intervals of the rheotome; the duration m-o is the duration of action potential ["negative Schwankung", and n is the "sign reversal" (overshoot)]
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![Fig. 6 First ion currents recordings (all from [34]) a Diagram...](profile/Alexei-Verkhratsky/publication/6723002/figure/fig10/AS:668735941668872@1536450481938/First-ion-currents-recordings-all-from-34-a-Diagram-illustrating-arrangement-of_Q320.jpg)
The development of electrophysiology is traced from the early beginnings represented by the work of the Dutch microscopist, Jan Swammerdam, in the 17th century through the first notion of an aqueous transmembrane pore as a substrate of excitability made by Luigi Galvani in late 18th century to the invention late in the 20th century of the patch-cla...
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... the rheotome, Bernstein made the first true recordings of resting and action potentials (Fig. 4). He estimated that at rest, the nerve interior is about 60 mV more negative than the surface and showed the kinetics of the action potential (still called "negative Schwankung"). The action potential measured by Bernstein had a rise time of about 0.3 ms and a duration of ∼0.8-0.9 ms; but most importantly, the potential deflection ...
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... For several years the intracellular perfusion technique was among the most advanced in the world, and all major contributors to the ion channel field, including Ervin Neher, Bert Sakman, Alan Marty, Owen Hamill, and Frederick Sigworth, visited Kyiv. These collaborations helped to design the glass pipette based patch-clamp (Neher and Sakmann, 1976;Hamill et al., 1981) which became the workhorse of modern neurophysiology (Verkhratsky et al., 2006). ...
... 4 Batteries invented: source of electrical energy for electrolyzing water An isolated frog's leg began to contract when it and its associated nerve were touched by a metal arc formed by two different metals [59]. This strange observation, known as 'galvanism' , was explained in 1791 by Galvani as the circulation of an electrical fluid between muscle -nerve which causes movement of the limbs and the associated sensations [60,61]. ...
... This strange observation, known as 'galvanism' , was explained in 1791 by Galvani as the circulation of an electrical fluid between muscle -nerve which causes movement of the limbs and the associated sensations [60,61]. It is a kind of intrinsic animal electricity secreted by the brain and discharged as soon as the muscle and nerve are attached by the two metals [59]. A controversy arose between Galvani and Volta, who in 1776 isolated methane as an unknown gas and used it to make Volta's pistol [62], when the latter declared that the electricity that animates the muscles comes from the two non-identical metals that touch the muscle and its nerve (or wet bodies of different compositions), which is why a small quantity of electricity is enough to observe the same phenomenon and the muscle-nerve only allows the electrical circuit to be closed [63]. ...
Human gluttony is having a catastrophic effect on the environment. Since the age of industry and the world wars, modern societies have hygienically depleted most of the earth's resources, thus depleting all the resources that will be essential for future generations. The problem doesn't stop there: greenhouse gas emissions have significantly increased the earth's temperature, causing terrible damage to the climate. The production of green energy with no greenhouse effect seems essential to save the planet. Green hydrogen is a suitable and promising way to generate an energy source that produces H2O molecules instead of CO2. Water electrolysis is a very important technique for producing green H2 using an appropriate electrical current generated by a non-polluting energy source such as wind turbines. This review presents a historical and technical overview of the hydrogen element from its discovery to its current production. Throughout this work, we have tried to deal with the most significant historical periods.
... Various techniques in electrophysiology have been employed since the 1970s 17 to investigate conformational changes in nAChRs 18 . For instance, the phenomenon known as "nachschlag shutting"-brief closures during a burst of openings 19,20 -can be attributed to a nonconductive state preceding channel opening. ...
7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are homopentameric ligand-gated ion channels with critical roles in the nervous system. Recent studies have resolved and functionally annotated closed, open, and desensitized states of these receptors, providing insight into ion permeation and lipid binding. However, the process by which α7 nAChRs transition between states remains unclear. To understand gating and lipid modulation, we generated two ensembles of molecular dynamics simulations of apo α7 nAChRs, with or without cholesterol. Using symmetry-adapted Markov state modeling, we developed a five-state gating model. Free energies recapitulated functional behavior, with the closed state dominating in absence of agonist. Open-to-nonconducting transition rates corresponded to experimental open durations. Cholesterol relatively stabilized the desensitized state, and reduced open-desensitized barriers. These results establish plausible asymmetric transition pathways between states, define lipid modulation effects on the α7 nAChR conformational cycle, and provide an ensemble of structural models applicable to rational design of lipidic pharmaceuticals.
... The interaction of electromagnetic fields with biological tissue has a long history that goes back to Galvani's (1791) classical experiments on frog legs to the fundamental work by Hodgkin and Huxley on nerve excitation (Hodgkin and Huxley, 1952). Sophisticated electrophysiological methods allowed then to identify ion channels as basis of tissue excitability (Verkhratsky et al., 2006). Another strain of development applied alternating electromagnetic fields on tissue and cell suspensions. ...
... Although ion channels were not directly incorporated into the theory, their existence was suggested, but it required several technical innovations over the following 30 years for functional recordings of ion channel currents to be achieved. 136 First, electrophysiological recordings were required not only from giant axons of non-vertebrates, but also from mammalian cells, which are small and difficult to access because of tissue barriers. Second, separation of currents carried by different ions and dissection of the mechanisms of regulation of these currents required control over the extra-and intracellular environments. ...
... The initial version of intracellular perfusion, developed by Oleg Kryshtal and Vladimir Pidoplichko, was built around plastic film, which separated two chambers, filled with extra-and intracellular solutions. 136,147 A tiny pore of several microns in diameter was made in the film by a sharp needle. Subsequently, the soma of the snail neurone was placed on top of the pore; a small negative pressure applied to the 'intracellular' chamber helped the cell to invade the pore. ...
... However, applied or translational research builds heavily and uniquely on fundamental knowledge accumulated over decades. In other words, basic research produces knowledge that may lead to applied or translational benefits (e.g., Clements and Avery, 1998;Verkhratsky et al., 2006). Moreover, translational research is only possible by the foundation of prior and ongoing basic research. ...
As science and technology evolve, there is an increasing need for promotion of international scientific exchange. Collaborations, while offering substantial opportunities for scientists and benefit to society, also present challenges for those working with animal models, such as non-human primates (NHPs). Diversity in regulation of animal research is sometimes mistaken for the absence of common international welfare standards. Here, the ethical and regulatory protocols for 13 countries that have guidelines in place for biomedical research involving NHPs were assessed with a focus on neuroscience. Review of the variability and similarity in trans-national NHP welfare regulations extended to countries in Asia, Europe and North America. A tabulated resource was established to advance solution-oriented discussions and scientific collaborations across borders. Our aim is to better inform the public and other stakeholders. Through cooperative efforts to identify and analyze information with reference to evidence-based discussion, the proposed key ingredients may help to shape and support a more informed, open framework. This framework and resource can be expanded further for biomedical research in other countries.
... The controversy and critical experiments conducted by Alessandro Volta, opened up the field to a wide number of scientist that investigated the phenomena of 'animal electricity'. Caton, Bernstein, Einthoven, Hodgkin and Huxley, all together, laid the foundations of the modern study of electrophysiology [20]. ...
In electrophysiology, multielectrode array devices (MEA) are the gold standard for the study of large ensambles of electrogenic cells. In the last decades, thanks to the adoption of nanotechnologies, the study of physiological and pathological conditions of electro-active cells in culture have becomes increasingly accurate. In parallel, studies exploited the integration of nanostructures with delivering capabilities with single-cell specificity and high throughput in biosensing platforms. Delivery and recording have independently led to great advances in neurobiology, however, their integration on a single chip would give complete insights into pathologies development and fundamental advancements in drug screening methods. In this work, we demonstrate how a microfluidic-MEA technology may be used to record both spontaneous and chemically induced activity in vitro. We propose a device that can deliver molecules to only a few chosen cells and detecting the response in cellular activity at multiple sites simultaneously. In addition, will be discussed how the adoption of nanoporous metamaterial in place of nanostructures might lower costs and speed up production. Furthermore, this same material, will be identified for the first time in this work as photoelectrical modulating material for eliciting electrogenic cells firing activity. Specifically, by converting NIR laser pulses into stimulatory currents, plasmonic metamaterials may be employed to induce action potentials. This method enables remote access to optical pacing with precise spatiotemporal control, allowing to be used as a valid alternative of the traditional genetic-based optical stimulation techniques. Therefore, in addition to pharmaceutical applications, these final characteristics may pave the way for a new generation of minimally invasive, cellular type-independent all-optical plasmonic pacemakers and muscle actuators.
... crucial information regarding membrane ion-channel activities, receptor channel interactions, etc. The patchclamp technique, which establishes direct contact with the intracellular environment through the penetration of a glass micropipette (Fig. 2a) [44][45][46] , is the most sensitive approach to investigating neural excitability. Thomas et al. investigated the propagation of axosomatic action potentials (APs) and postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) transmitted to the basal tree with the patch-clamp technique, demonstrating that EPSPs are of prime importance to neuronal output (Fig. 2b) 47 . ...
Neuron interface devices can be used to explore the relationships between neuron firing and synaptic transmission, as well as to diagnose and treat neurological disorders, such as epilepsy and Alzheimer’s disease. It is crucial to exploit neuron devices with high sensitivity, high biocompatibility, multifunctional integration and high-speed data processing. During the past decades, researchers have made significant progress in neural electrodes, artificial sensory neuron devices, and neuromorphic optic neuron devices. The main part of the review is divided into two sections, providing an overview of recently developed neuron interface devices for recording electrophysiological signals, as well as applications in neuromodulation, simulating the human sensory system, and achieving memory and recognition. We mainly discussed the development, characteristics, functional mechanisms, and applications of neuron devices and elucidated several key points for clinical translation. The present review highlights the advances in neuron devices on brain-computer interfaces and neuroscience research.
... Una de las primeras ideas sobre la excitación y conducción eléctrica en el tejido nervioso data de la era del fi lósofo, físico y matemático francés René Descartes; quien en 1633, en su libro Le traité de l´homme, propone la existencia de un espíritu animal que viaja a través de los canales huecos de los nervios y que al llegar al fi nal del nervio activaba una serie de válvulas que permitían el paso hacia el músculo dando como resultado fi nal la contracción muscular; basado en este pensamiento concluyó que estos impulsos y contracciones eran los responsables de los movimientos de los seres vivos. 1 Estas ideas perduraron hasta el año de 1660 cuando el científi co naturalista Jan Swammerdam probó que la contracción muscular se podía obtener por una "irritación" o estimulación eléctrica artifi cial del nervio en las ancas de la rana; con esta demostración experimental concluyó que existe una señal eléctrica en los seres vivos que se propaga desde los nervios hacia los músculos; 2,3 un siglo después Luigi Galvani, Lucia Galeazzi y Giovanni Aldini retoman y amplían la idea de Swammerdam y publican en 1791 el artículo llamado De Virbus Electriciatis in Motu Musculari Commentarius donde demuestran que la generación de esta señal o impulso nervioso tiene una relación directa entre la intensidad del estímulo y el grado de contracción muscular y además ante una estimulación repetida los impulsos nerviosos poseen un periodo de descanso (periodo refractario) entre una respuesta y otra; y por último, señalan que la bioelectricidad se propaga a través de los nervios. 3 Estas ideas propuestas por Galvani tuvieron un impacto más allá del ámbito de la fi siología, por ejemplo, sirvieron como fuente de inspiración para que Mary Shelley escribiera acerca del tema de la resucitación en su libro Frankenstein; or The Modern Prometheus, publicado en 1817. 4,5 Hasta ese momento sólo se tenía la noción de la existencia de un impulso eléctrico que se propagaba a través de los nervios hacia los músculos provocando una respuesta muscular; sin embargo, se desconocían los mecanismos por los cuales esta señal eléctrica viaja tan rápido a través de los nervios. ...
Resultado de aprendizaje: El estudiante analiza los mecanismos celulares que participan en el origen y propagación del potencial de acción. Biofísica de la membrana celular II: potencial de acción y propagación 5 INTRODUCCIÓN Los fenómenos eléctricos que ocurren en la naturaleza siempre han sido de gran interés para el hombre; en sus inicios los relacionaba con deidades, más adelante pudo entenderlos y usarlos para su benefi cio; entre más obser-vaba y estudiaba su entorno pudo descubrir que dichos fenómenos en los seres vivos se producen, propagan y contribuyen a mantener la vida. Una de las primeras ideas sobre la excitación y con-ducción eléctrica en el tejido nervioso data de la era del fi lósofo, físico y matemático francés René Descartes; quien en 1633, en su libro Le traité de l´homme, propone la existencia de un espíritu animal que viaja a través de los canales huecos de los nervios y que al llegar al fi nal del nervio activaba una serie de válvulas que permitían el paso hacia el músculo dando como resultado fi nal la contracción muscular; basado en este pensamiento con-cluyó que estos impulsos y contracciones eran los res-ponsables de los movimientos de los seres vivos. 1 Estas ideas perduraron hasta el año de 1660 cuando el científi co naturalista Jan Swammerdam probó que la contracción muscular se podía obtener por una "irrita-ción" o estimulación eléctrica artifi cial del nervio en las ancas de la rana; con esta demostración experimental concluyó que existe una señal eléctrica en los seres vivos que se propaga desde los nervios hacia los músculos; 2,3 un siglo después Luigi Galvani, Lucia Galeazzi y Giovanni Aldini retoman y amplían la idea de Swammerdam y publican en 1791 el artículo llamado De Virbus Electriciatis in Motu Musculari Commentarius donde demuestran que la generación de esta señal o impulso nervioso tiene una relación directa entre la intensidad del estímulo y el gra-do de contracción muscular y además ante una estimula-ción repetida los impulsos nerviosos poseen un periodo de descanso (periodo refractario) entre una respuesta y otra; y por último, señalan que la bioelectricidad se pro-paga a través de los nervios. 3 Estas ideas propuestas por Galvani tuvieron un impacto más allá del ámbito de la fi siología, por ejemplo, sirvieron como fuente de inspira-ción para que Mary Shelley escribiera acerca del tema de la resucitación en su libro Frankenstein; or The Modern Prometheus, publicado en 1817. 4,5 Hasta ese momento sólo se tenía la noción de la exis-tencia de un impulso eléctrico que se propagaba a través de los nervios hacia los músculos provocando una res-puesta muscular; sin embargo, se desconocían los meca-nismos por los cuales esta señal eléctrica viaja tan rápido
... In 1972, Oleg Krishtal and Vladimir Pidoplichko developed the first ever set-up for intracellular perfusion and voltage clamping of neuronal somata; a technique which played a substantial role in the subsequent development of the patch-clamp technique. 9 In the next 20 years the electrophysiological school of Kyiv dominated physiological research in the Soviet Union. The fall of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the independent Ukraine imposed material and financial strains and precipitated the exodus of many academics. ...
