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3D printing is an additive manufacturing technique which involves the physical fabrication of an object from a digital model, by binding thin successive layers to build up the final shape. It was originated in the 1980s and currently is widely available for its use in contemporary sculpture. Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) is one of the most acces...
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... this study, two test samples of PLA (commercialized by BQ) and ABS (commercialized by MakerBot) white filaments were prepared in two forms: segments of 1.75 mm diameter and rectangular printed parts of 80 × 30 × 3.75 mm ( Fig. 2 ). The equipment used to produce the printed samples was a Creality Ender 3 3D printer configured with the following parameters: 0.25 mm layer height, 100% infill, 230 °C nozzle extrusion temperature for ABS and 200 °C for PLA. ...
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![Figure 2. Specimen dimmesion [17]](profile/Yopi-Tanoto-2/publication/368132044/figure/fig2/AS:11431281124281686@1677898795274/Specimen-dimmesion-17_Q320.jpg)
Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to quickly scale physical parts or assemblies using three-dimensional computer-aided design (CAD) data. The process of 3D printing constructs three-dimensional objects from CAD models, usually by adding layers by a layer of material in a row. Therefore it is also called making addictive manufacturing....
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... Using a synthetic material such as epoxy resin would not provide any advantages regarding aging. An important question remains concerning the lifespan of such a 3D print (San Andrés et al. 2023). The plastic materials used display relatively good resistance to UV radiation and thermal degradation. ...
This study describes the conservation of a valuable plaster model used as a preparatory study for one of the figures in the monumental memorial to František Palacký in Prague, designed by renowned Czech sculptor Stanislav Sucharda. In conserving the damaged plaster cast, the challenge arose of adding the missing parts. In consultations between the client and conservators, the presentation of the work and options for its completion were discussed, focusing on conservation principles such as minimal intervention and preserving authenticity and documentary values. The use of modern technologies, particularly photogrammetry for documenting the final bronze cast, along with software data processing and 3D printing to create the missing parts, proved to be an attractive solution. The chosen reconstruction method using 3D printing met the requirement for reversible reintegration, employing a distinguishable material that matched the modeling of the rest of the work and the original design. The paper summarizes the discussion on using photogrammetry and 3D printing in plaster-cast conservation and outlines the rationale behind the chosen work procedure, which combines modern technologies with traditional conservation techniques.
... San Andrés et al. used FTIR spectroscopy to examine the composition and long-term behavior of ABS materials in fine art applications under environmental conditions such as light exposure and humidity. FTIR spectra showed signs of degradation in the ABS material [23]. ...
... The deformation vibration from aliphatic and aromatic C-H bonds is represented with intense strips at 759 and 698 cm −1 and C=C aromatic at 541 cm −1 . Results are in accordance with FTIR analysis in [23,24]. ...
This study investigates the environmental aging effects on 3D-printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) produced using Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) and Digital Light Processing (DLP) techniques. The materials in filament (FDM) and resin (DLP) forms were exposed to UV light, humidity, and temperature fluctuations over two months. Mechanical testing via three-point bending and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) were employed to assess the impact of these environmental factors. Results showed notable mechanical strength and structural stability differences between the FDM-printed filament and DLP-printed resin ABS under aging conditions. The filament-based ABS exhibited superior mechanical properties, retaining its strength over time, while the resin-based ABS degraded significantly shortly after printing. Despite exposure to ambient environmental conditions, the chemical composition of both materials remained stable throughout the research period.
... A 3D printed turbulence promoter (3DP), which was designed based on our previous work, was used and is shown in Figure 2 [13]. This promoter was made of PLA, which was selected due to its superior characteristics over ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) [54,55]. The manufacturing process involved fused deposition modelling (FDM) technology using a Craftbot-3 3D printer. ...
In this study, the integration of a 3D printed turbulence promoter into a stirred membrane separation cell during dairy wastewater ultrafiltration was investigated. Its effects, along with the effects of stirring, on the permeate flux and membrane fouling were examined. The experiments were carried out at different transmembrane pressures (0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 MPa) and stirring speeds (RPM: 100–400 min−1), both with and without the application of the turbulence promoter. Various parameters were employed to characterize the membrane performance, such as the permeate flux, the flux decline ratio, and the fouling coefficient. To further investigate the membrane fouling mechanisms, mathematical models were used: the resistance-in-series model, the Makardij model, and the Hermia model. With the resistance-in-series model, we examined whether the membrane fouling was reversible (the deposit could be easily removed by washing operations) or irreversible (irreversible fouling) for each measurement, and with the Makardij model, we investigated whether the rate constant of the fouling or the rate constant of the deposit removal was the most important. In the case of the Hermia model, changes in the cake filtration rate constant were monitored. The results indicate that the combination of the 3D printed turbulence promoter and the stirring speed could effectively reduce membrane fouling during dairy wastewater ultrafiltration.
... These chemical modifications translate into significant alterations of the mechanical properties of the materials. [6][7][8][9][10][11] Over time, this can result in reduced strength, toughness, and flexibility of ABS. In cultural heritage preservation, monitoring the degradation provides valuable insights into the material's long-term durability. ...
... shows the BRaMS spectra collected on the surface of the samples subjected to different doses (kJ/cm 2 ). The BRaMS integrated approach clearly reveals that photodegradation causes a shift of the ABS Brillouin peak to higher frequencies, from 14.27 GHz to 15.09 GHz.This shift is consistent with an increase in the stiffness of the material and is associated with the decrease of the Raman (C=C) band at 1668 cm -1 assigned to PB.External reflection IR observes the same trend, indicating a decrease of the unsaturated bond content of the PB fraction which is monitored by the band at 965 cm -1 δ(CH) of PB.3,6,7 ...
A multimodal spectroscopic approach is proposed to correlate the mechanical and chemical properties of plastic materials in art and design objects, at both surface and subsurface levels, to obtain information about their conservation state and to monitor their degradation. The approach was used to investigate the photo-oxidation of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), a plastic commonly found in many artistic and design applications, using ABS-based LEGO bricks as model samples. The modifications of the chemical and viscoelastic properties of ABS during photoaging were monitored by correlative Brillouin and Raman microspectroscopy (BRaMS), combined with portable and noninvasive broad-range external reflection infrared (IR) spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxometry, directly applicable in museums. BRaMS enabled combined measurements of Brillouin light scattering and Raman spectroscopy in a microspectroscopic setup, providing for the coincident probe of the chemical and mechanical changes of ABS at the sample surface. NMR relaxometry allowed for noninvasive measurements of relaxation times and depth profiles which are directly related to the molecular mobility of the material. Complementary chemical information was acquired by external reflection IR spectroscopy. The simultaneous probe of the chemical and mechanical properties by this multimodal spectroscopic approach enabled us to define a decay model of ABS in terms of compositional changes and variation of stiffness and rigidity occurring with photodegradation. The knowledge acquired on LEGO samples has been used to rate the conservation state of ABS design objects noninvasively investigated by external reflection Fourier transform IR spectroscopy and NMR relaxometry offered by the MObile LABoratory (MOLAB) platform of the European Research Infrastructure of Heritage Science.
... ABS is a thermoplastic polymer known for its strength, durability, and impact resistance, making it an ideal choice for a wide range of applications, from functional prototypes to end-use components. However, the performance of ABS filaments can be further enhanced through the incorporation of reinforcing materials, such as continuous carbon fibers, which have been shown to improve the physical and mechanical properties of the printed components [2]. FDM is a layer-by-layer additive manufacturing process where a thermoplastic filament is heated to a molten state and extruded through a nozzle to build up a 3D object. ...
This study investigates the parameters affecting the tensile strength of materials produced by 3D printing using the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) method. 3D printing technology is widely used in fields such as engineering, medicine, and design, where optimizing material performance requires the accurate determination of printing parameters. This research experimentally examines the effects of various parameters, including printing temperature, layer thickness, infill density on the mechanical strength of the material. In this study, tensile specimens were produced from ABS material using FDM method with a 3D printer according to ASTM standards. The tensile strengths of these specimens were examined by subjecting them to tensile tests. The experimental results demonstrate that selecting the optimal combination of these parameters can significantly enhance the tensile strength of the material produced during the printing process. When evaluating the tensile test results of the produced tensile specimens, it was determined that the optimal production parameters are a 50% infill density, a nozzle temperature of 240 ℃, and a layer thickness of 0.2 mm. According to the analysis of variance, the most influential parameter affecting production was found to be the infill density.
... This understanding can be used to predict their performance when these 3D-printed components are used under operational conditions. Previous research [6] has discussed the impact of print direction in 3D printing on high cycle bending fatigue characteristics, while another study [21] has focused on the influence of manufacturing parameters on macroscopic geometric dimensions. Additionally, other works have evaluated the risks and hazards associated with FDM through a basic risk assessment using the Kinney methodology [5] and have investigated changes following an accelerated artificial aging process [20]. ...
Additive manufacturing (AM) enables the production of intricately designed components, eliminating traditional tooling requirements and significantly reducing manufacturing times. However, challenges persist in achieving the desired surface finish. Post-processing methods, such as acetone vapor treatment, have emerged as effective means to enhance surface quality. This study investigates the effects of various parameters-temperature, exposure times, and acetone concentrations-on the surface finish and mechanical properties of AM-produced ABS components. The results indicate a notable improvement of over 10% in surface smoothness, accompanied by a negligible weight increase (<0.1%). Furthermore, enhancements in mechanical properties, including a 4.2% increase in stiffness and a substantial 16.75% boost in yield strength, were observed. These findings suggest the feasibility of employing acetone-treated ABS components in vehicle cabins, offering both esthetic refinement and enhanced mechanical performance.
... The outcome of the extrusion process yields a configuration of filaments varying in cohesion, influenced by both the printing parameters and the inherent properties of the feedstock material [28][29][30]. For instance, several contributions demonstrated the link between the printing temperature and the mechanical performance of ABS. ...
This study investigated how printing conditions influence the fracture behaviour of 3D-printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) under tensile loading. Dog-bone-shaped ABS specimens were produced using the fusion filament fabrication technique, with varying printing angles. Tensile tests were conducted on pre-notched specimens with consistent pre-notch lengths but different orientations. Optical and scanning electron microscopies were employed to analyse crack propagation in the pre-notched specimens. In order to support experimental evidence, finite element computation was implemented to study the damage induced by the microstructural rearrangement of the filaments when subject to tensile loading. The findings revealed the simple linear correlation between the failure properties including elongation at break and maximum stress in relation to the printing angle for different pre-notch lengths. A more progressive damage was found to support the ultimate performance of the studied material. This experiment evidence was used to build a damage model of 3D-printed ABS that accounts for the onset, growth, and damage saturation. This damage modelling is able to capture the failure properties as a function of the printing angle using a sigmoid-like damage function and a modulation of the stiffness within the raster. The numerical results demonstrated that damage pattern develops as a result of the filament arrangement and weak adhesion between adjacent filaments and explains the diffuse damage kinetics observed experimentally. This study concludes with a topological law relating the notch size and orientation to the rupture properties of 3D-printed ABS. This study supports the idea of tailoring the microstructural arrangement to control and mitigate the mechanical instabilities that lead to the failure of 3D-printed polymers.
... The extrusion process for polymer materials can involve a variety of raw materials, including powders, granules, filaments, and resins, depending on the manufacturing method and raw material used. Thermoplastic polymers such as Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) [18], Polylactic Acid (PLA) [19], Polyethylene Terephthalate (PETG) [20], Polyether ether Ketone (PEEK) [21], and Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) [22] have been utilized in the production of rotating parts. For instance, in a miniature organic rankine cycle (mORC), Hernandez-Carrillo et al. [23] investigated using an ABS impeller. ...
The selection of process parameters is crucial in 3D printing for product manufacturing. These parameters govern the operation of production machinery and influence the mechanical properties, production time, and other aspects of the final product. The optimal process parameter settings vary depending on the product and printing application. This study identifies the most suitable cluster of process parameters for producing rotating components, specifically impellers, using carbon-reinforced Polyether Ether Ketone (CF-PEEK) thermoplastic filament. A mathematical programming technique using a rating method was employed to select the appropriate process parameters. The research concludes that an infill density of 70%, a layer height of 0.15 mm, a printing speed of 60 mm/s, a platform temperature of 195 °C, an extruder temperature of 445 °C, and an extruder travel speed of 95 mm/s are optimal process parameters for manufacturing rotating components using carbon-reinforced PEEK material.
... The findings indicated that the orientation of the raster (30 • , 45 • and 60 • angles) and the thickness of each layer have a notable impact on the mechanical characteristics [21][22][23]. The mechanical properties increase with the increase in layer thickness and feed rate [24][25][26][27]. ...
A R T I C L E I N F O Keywords: MEX ABS CF-ABS Tensile Flexural Compressive Izod impact Failure mechanisms Taguchi analysis HR-SEM A B S T R A C T Metal Extrusion (MEX) is a leading 3D printing technology for polymers, enabling intricate designs and personalized products in various applications. The current study evaluate how infill density affects the tensile, flexural, compressive, Izod impact and fracture behaviour of Acrylo-nitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) and Carbon Fiber Reinforced-Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (CF-ABS) specimens manufactured using the MEX method. Different infill densities of 20, 40, 60 and 80 % are used in the production of honeycomb infill pattern samples for investigating the mechanical as well as fracture behaviour of MEX ABS/CF-ABS components. The experimental runs of fabricated composites were tested using a digital Izod impact tester and servo-controlled hydraulic universal testing machine, following ASTM standard procedures. The experimental findings show that CF-ABS specimens with an 80 % infill density and honeycomb fill pattern showed significant improvements in tensile strength, modulus, yield strength and elongation. The flexural strength (64.74 %), flexural modulus (209.15 %), compressive strength (125.21 %), compressive modulus (108.34 %) and impact strength (38.91 %) of these specimens are comparable to those of 3D printed ABS specimens and other infill densities. The research shows that precise management of processing variables can greatly improve the mechanical properties of 3D-printed ABS samples, providing valuable insights for a range of applications.
... The C-H deformation vibrations were detected at 1381 cm −1 . The bands that were linked to an amorphous and crystalline phase were at 753 and 701 cm −1 , respectively [59][60][61][62]. The aforementioned FTIR spectra are shown in Figure 3. ...
Additive manufacturing, with its fast development and application of polymeric materials, led to the wide utilization of polylactic acid (PLA) materials. As a biodegradable and biocompatible aliphatic polyester, produced from renewable sources, PLA is widely used in different sectors, from industry to medicine and science. The aim of this research is to determine the differences between two forms of the PLA material, i.e., fused deposition modeling (FDM) printed filament and digital light processing (DLP) printed resin, followed by aging due to environmental and hygiene maintenance conditions for a period of two months. Specimens underwent 3D scanning, tensile testing, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometry to obtain insights into the material changes that occurred. Two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) statistical analysis was subsequently carried out to determine the statistical significance of the determined changes. Significant impairment can be observed in the dimensional accuracies between both materials, whether they are non-aged or aged. The mechanical properties fluctuated for aged FDM specimens: 15% for ultimate tensile stress, 15% for elongation at yield, and 12% for elastic modulus. Regarding the DLP aged specimens, the UTS decreased by 61%, elongation at yield by around 61%, and elastic modulus by 62%. According to the FTIR spectral analysis, the PLA materials degraded, especially in the case of resin specimens. Aging also showed a significant influence on the elastic modulus, ultimate tensile stress, elongation at yield, elongation at break, and toughness of both materials, which was statistically shown by means of a two-way ANOVA test. The data collected in this research give a better understanding of the underlying aging mechanism of PLA materials.
