Figures 23-26 - uploaded by John Theodore Huber
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Kikiki huna female, on slide (cleared, except Fig. 23). 23 habitus, dorsal 24 head + right antenna, anterior 25 head, posterior 26 mesosoma, dorsal + metasoma, dorsal but focus at lower plane to show ovipositor. Scale line = 100 μm.
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A new genus and species of fairyfly, Tinkerbella nana (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) gen. n. and sp. n., is described from Costa Rica. It is compared with the related genus Kikiki Huber and Beardsley from the Hawaiian Islands, Costa Rica and Trinidad. A specimen of Kikiki huna Huber measured 158 μm long, thus holding the record for the smallest winged in...
Citations
... Indeed, only Megaphragma and Camptoptera Förster (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) are known to contain members with anucleate neurons (Polilov et al. 2023), a consequence of the lysis of most brain cell nuclei during the pharate adult stage (Polilov 2012(Polilov , 2017a(Polilov , 2017bMakarova et al. 2022). Only the family Mymaridae (fairyflies) contains members marginally smaller than M. caribea Delvare, at only 0.17 mm, the previous record holder for the world's smallest flying insect (Delvare, 1993;Huber and Noyes 2013). ...
... This does not apply to Megaphragma, however, because species with known biologies are not gregarious (Hessein and McMurtry 1988;Bernardo and Viggiani 2002). Also, thrips eggs are much smaller than those parasitised by Monorthochaeta and Prestwichia, and the size limits of arthropods may preclude the development of more than one wasp in eggs of this size because Megaphragma are already at the lower end of the size range proposed for insects capable of normal ambulation (Huber and Noyes 2013). Therefore, we hypothesise that M. wolfi is either a highly specialised species where winglessness has been selected based on some aspect of its life history or the specimens that were collected in Costa Rica and South Carolina are apterous 'forms' of a species that may also include brachypterous or macropterous morphs (eg P. aquatica; Henriksen 1922). ...
... However, the range of body sizes and shapes of flying insects is quite diverse, with body lengths spanning six orders of magnitude. For instance, the body length of fairy wasps (Dicopomorpha echmepterygis) is approximately 0.13 mm [39], while that of extinct massive protodonates could have been up to 350 mm [40]. There is also a considerable amount of variation in the body shape of flying insects, just as there is in body size. ...
Insects enhance aerodynamic flight control using the dynamic movement of their appendages, aiding in balance, stability, and manoeuvrability. Although biologists have observed these behaviours, the phenomena have not been expressed in a unified mathematical flight dynamics framework. For instance, relevant existing models tend to disregard either the aerodynamic or the inertial effects of the appendages of insects, such as the abdomen, based on the assumption that appendage dynamic effects dominate in comparison to aerodynamic effects, or that appendages are stationary. However, appendages in insects exist in various shapes and sizes, which affect the level of both the inertial and aerodynamic contributions to the overall system. Here, the effects of the individual dynamic, inertial and aerodynamic contributions of biologically inspired appendages in fixed wing forward flight demonstrate the utility of the framework on an example system. The analysis demonstrates the effect of these aerodynamic appendages on the steady flight and manoeuvre performance of a small aircraft with an actuated aft appendage capable of movement in the longitudinal and lateral axes, analogous to an insect abdomen. We use the method to consider designs with different appendage areas. The example case showed that ignoring the aerodynamic contribution might yield useful insights depending on the size of the appendage, but including the aerodynamic effects as part of a consistent mathematical framework leads to a more comprehensive understanding of the role of appendage morphology. The method allows improved modelling for modern multivariate control system design using bioinspired appendages. Inertia-dominated appendages provided more advantages in energy-based longitudinal manoeuvres and in trimmed flight, with reduced advantage in initiating lateral manoeuvres.
... The hymenopteran ovipositor consists of two pairs of valvifers located at the base, which house the muscles controlling the ovipositor mechanism, along with three pairs of valvulae capable of sliding along each other [154] ( Figure 7A,B). The size of this structure can vary significantly, ranging from micrometers to the longest ovipositors documented in Arthropoda with lengths of over 100 mm [155,156], facilitating oviposition in diverse substrates such as wood, soil, or within other organisms [157] ( Figure 1F, Figure 7B). ...
The extraordinary adaptations that Hymenoptera (sawflies, wasps, ants, and bees) exhibit on their body surfaces has long intrigued biologists. These adaptations, which enabled the immense success of these insects in a wide range of environments and habitats, include an amazing array of specialized structures facilitating attachment, penetration of substrates, production of sound, perception of volatiles, and delivery of venoms, among others. These morphological features offer valuable insights for biomimetic and bioinspired technological advancements. Here, we explore the biomimetic potential of hymenopteran body surfaces. We highlight recent advancements and outline potential strategic pathways, evaluating their current functions and applications while suggesting promising avenues for further investigations. By studying these fascinating and biologically diverse insects, researchers could develop innovative materials and devices that replicate the efficiency and functionality of insect body structures, driving progress in medical technology, robotics, environmental monitoring, and beyond.
... Agricultural lands often exhibit altered soil properties and reduced habitat complexity, leading to changes in arthropod communities compared to natural forest ecosystems (Huber et al., 2017). Conversely, forests typically support more diverse and stable arthropod populations due to their complex structure and less disturbed soil conditions (Huber et al., 2013). Seasonal variations also play a critical role in shaping these communities, with fluctuations in temperature, moisture, and food availability influencing arthropod activity and diversity (Trebicki et al., 2010). ...
This study examines the seasonal variations in abundance and diversity of Hymenoptera soil arthropods in agricultural versus forest ecosystems. Soil samples were systematically collected monthly from February 2015 to January 2017 across three distinct seasons-winter, summer, and monsoon-from both agricultural and forested areas in Rajanpalle village, Telangana, India. Using the Shannon-Weiner Index, the research assessed species diversity, while the analysis of seasonal abundance involved evaluating the relative proportions of different Hymenoptera species. The results indicated significant seasonal fluctuations in abundance within the agricultural ecosystem, with notable declines in diversity as reflected by lower Shannon-Weiner Index values. Specifically, species like Camponotus sp. and Monomorium sp. showed decreased diversity during summer months. Conversely, the forest ecosystem displayed more consistent abundance patterns and higher diversity indices throughout the year, suggesting a more stable and diverse habitat. These findings underscore the adverse effects of agricultural practices on soil arthropod communities, emphasizing the importance of preserving forest environments to support higher biodiversity and ecosystem stability.
... Tetrapolynema Ogloblin, 1946 A31, B63, C65, D56, E56, F53, g20, H26, I24, J23. Tinkerbella Huber & Noyes, 2013. Figs C66, F54. ...
... Thomas and Suthers 1972 for bats, Azuma and Okuno 1987 for the samara Alsomitra macrocarpa). However, there are also many tiny flying organisms with (discontinuous) bristled wings, such as fairyflies (Huber and Noyes 2013) and dandelions (Cummins et al 2018). The bristled wing, which has received significantly less attention until recent years, can be described as a main frame with numerous spaced bristles attached to it. ...
Enhancing the aerodynamic performance of bristled wings is an important topic for small flying robotics. This paper numerically investigates this situation at very low Reynolds numbers by using elliptic cylinders as the bristles instead of circular cylinders. Optimal configuration of the bristled wing with five elliptic cylinders is obtained, which corresponds to the maximum lift. The results show that, compared with the case of circular cylindrical bristles, the aerodynamic performance of the elliptical bristles can be enhanced effectively. The enhancement can be more significant as the aspect ratio of the ellipses increases and the gap width decreases. The bristled wing generates more lift compared to a flat-plate wing with a length five times that of the major axis of an ellipse. For the cases that the attack angle α for the whole wing is equal to those for the elliptical bristles θ, the optimal attack angle for ellipses maximizing the total lift force of the five-bristle model is between 40° and 45°. For α ≠ θ with the Reynold number Re ≪ 0.1, the optimal ellipse attack angle is between 40° and 45°. For α ≠ θ with Re∼ 1, the optimal ellipse attack angle deviates heavier from the range between 40° and 45° at some α values and reaches approximately 32° at α = 20°. This paper can lay a foundation for optimal design of small flying robotics and enhancement of flow through porous structures in future.
... Most studies on insect flight focus on macroscopic insects with membraned wings, such as flies, moths and dragonflies [6][7][8][9][10][11]. However, there is a myriad of miniature flying insects with body size less than 1 mm [12,13]; some as small as a few hundred micrometres, e.g. a species of fairyflies called Tinkerbella nana [14]. In contrast to macroscopic insects, the morphology, behaviour and flight of miniature insects and the fluid-structure interactions (FSIs) of their wings are much less well understood, despite having long fascinated scientists [15][16][17]. ...
... These wings are collectively called bristled wings. Studies of a wide range of miniature insects [14,[21][22][23][24][25][26] provide detailed data on the number, shape and micro-structure of the bristles, as well as the dimensions of the central wing pads. In addition, the flight characteristics of several species of bristled-winged insects have been quantified by high-speed videos, allowing for analysis and numerical simulations of flight kinematics and aerodynamics at extremely small size scales [26,27,[29][30][31][32]. ...
... (b) Number of bristles n plotted against the ratio l/B in insects, where l is the average bristle length. Measurements gathered or estimated from [14,[21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28] are tabulated in tables S1 and S2 in the electronic supplementary material. ...
The smallest flying insects often have bristled wings resembling feathers or combs. We combined experiments and three-dimensional numerical simulations to investigate the trade-off between wing weight and drag generation. In experiments of bristled strips, a reduced physical model of the bristled wing, we found that the elasto-viscous number indicates when reconfiguration occurs in the bristles. Analysis of existing biological data suggested that bristled wings of miniature insects lie below the reconfiguration threshold, thus avoiding drag reduction. Numerical simulations of bristled strips showed that there exist optimal numbers of bristles that maximize the weighted drag when the additional volume due to the bristles is taken into account. We found a scaling relationship between the rescaled optimal numbers and the dimensionless bristle length. This result agrees qualitatively with and provides an upper bound for the bristled wing morphological data analysed in this study.
... Most studies on insect flight focus on macroscopic insects with membraned wings, such as flies, moths, and dragonflies [6][7][8][9][10][11]. However, there is a myriad of miniature flying insects with body size less than 1 mm [12,13]; some as small as a few hundred microns, e.g., a species of fairyflies called Tinkerbella nana [14]. In contrast to macroscopic insects, the morphology, behavior, and flight of miniature insects and the fluidstructure interactions (FSI) of their wings are much less well-understood, despite having long fascinated scientists [15][16][17]. ...
... These wings are collectively called bristled wings. Studies of a wide range of miniature insects [14,[19][20][21][22][23][24] provide detailed data on the number, shape, and micro-structure of the bristles, as well as the dimensions of the central wing pads. In addition, the flight characteristics of several species of bristled-winged insects have been quantified by high-speed videos, allowing for analysis and numerical simulations of flight kinematics and aerodynamics at extremely small size scales [24][25][26][27][28][29]. ...
... The Reynolds number (Re) of the bristled wing is usually estimated based on the wing chord length (Re c ) and has been reported to be Re c =O(1) − O (10) [16,32,34]. [14,[19][20][21][22][23][24][25]35] are tabulated in Tables S1 and S2 in the supplementary information. ...
The smallest flying insects often have bristled wings resembling feathers or combs. We combined experiments and three-dimensional numerical simulations to investigate the trade-off between wing weight and drag generation. In experiments of bristled strips, a reduced physical model of the bristled wing, we found that the elasto-viscous number indicates when reconfiguration occurs in the bristles. Analysis of existing biological data suggested that bristled wings of miniature insects lie below the reconfiguration threshold, thus avoiding drag reduction. Numerical simulations of bristled strips showed that there exist optimal numbers of bristles that maximize the weighted drag when the additional volume due to the bristles is taken into account. We found a scaling relationship between the rescaled optimal numbers and the dimensionless bristle length. This result agrees qualitatively with and provides an upper bound for the bristled wing morphological data analyzed in this study.
... Many of the smallest flying insects have bristled wings (Fig. 9), e.g. thrips (Lewis, 1973), tiny beetles (Polilov, 2005) and fairyflies (Huber and Noyes, 2013). ...
Approximately half of the existing winged-insect species are of very small size (wing length about 0.3-4 mm); they are referred to as miniature insects. Yet until recently, much of what we know about the mechanics of insect flight was derived from studies on relatively large insects, such as hoverflies, honey bees and hawkmoths. Because of their very small size, many miniature insects fly at a Reynolds number (Re) on the order of 10 or less. At such a low Re, the viscous effect of the air is very large: A miniature insect moves through the air as would a bumble bee move through mineral oil. Miniature insects must use new flapping mode and new aerodynamic mechanisms to fly. Over the past decade, much work has been done in the study of the mechanics of flight in miniature insects: novel flapping modes have been discovered and new mechanisms of aerodynamic force generation have been revealed; progress has also been made on the fluid-mechanics related flight problems, such as flight power requirements and flight dynamic stability. This article reviews these developments and discusses potential future directions.
... The number of ommatidia therefore determines the total number of images an eye can form, or its spatial information capacity. Ommatidia can be counted in micrographs, ranging from about 20 in the fairyfly Kikiki huna (body length = 158 µm) 21,22 to over 30,000 in large dragonflies 5 . Compound eyes further divide into two structural groups: apposition eyes, in which pigment cells between ommatidia restrict incoming light to a single rhabdom, such that lens size limits optical sensitivity (Fig. 1a), and superposition eyes, in which light travels through a clear zone that allows many facets to contribute to each point (Fig. 1b), thereby multiplying the final sensitivity. ...
With a great variety of shapes and sizes, compound eye morphologies give insight into visual ecology, development, and evolution, and inspire novel engineering. In contrast to our own camera-type eyes, compound eyes reveal their resolution, sensitivity, and field of view externally, provided they have spherical curvature and orthogonal ommatidia. Non-spherical compound eyes with skewed ommatidia require measuring internal structures, such as with MicroCT (µCT). Thus far, there is no efficient tool to characterize compound eye optics, from either 2D or 3D data, automatically. Here we present two open-source programs: (1) the ommatidia detecting algorithm (ODA), which measures ommatidia count and diameter in 2D images, and (2) a µCT pipeline (ODA-3D), which calculates anatomical acuity, sensitivity, and field of view across the eye by applying the ODA to 3D data. We validate these algorithms on images, images of replicas, and µCT eye scans from ants, fruit flies, moths, and a bee.
