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Figure1. Causal diagram of multigenerational transmission of early life conditions on height and longevity. P = parents; GP = grandparents; GGP = great-grandparents. Figure made in DAGitty, http:// www.dagitty.net/.
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Early-life experiences can have lasting effects on health across multiple generations. The pathways of these transgenerational transmissions are difficult to explore, because of the complex interactions of social and biological factors involved. This study explores the potential role of one such pathway – inherited epigenetic modifications to gene...
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Citations
... Firstly, as one of the typical types of Hakka architecture (Figure 6), the Tang-Heng style is an important prototype of the plan and elevation forms of the Cong-Cuo style in the Goulou Cluster of Yue Dialects in Guangxi, namely the main house-side house plan form and the multisegmented elevation form. During the construction process, the two also form some differentiated features: (1) The main entrance of the Cong-Cuo style of the Goulou Cluster of Yue Dialects in Guangxi is centered, and the exterior facade is relatively straight, divided into a three-section or five-section style, with the roof correspondingly adopting a three-section or five-section shape. (2) The exterior facade of the Hakka Tang-Heng style in Guangxi has a more diverse hierarchy, usually with three to five doors on the outside. ...
Traditional Chinese villages and architectural cultural resources are abundant. Against the backdrop of rapid development in contemporary socioeconomic and urbanization processes, rural construction is facing multiple challenges such as imbalanced urban–rural development, gradually fading cultural traditions, and disharmonious living environments. The cultural elements of rural architecture urgently need more systematic and effective protection, integration, and reuse. Therefore, the precise extraction of traditional architectural features and their translation applications in modern contexts are gradually becoming key issues in current research and practice fields. This study takes traditional architecture of the Goulou Cluster of Yue Dialects in Guangxi, China, as an example. Through field investigations and mathematical and GIS spatial analysis, architectural samples were identified and extracted typologically, and a database of traditional architecture was constructed, delineating architectural cultural zones and summarizing type characteristics to create a genealogy map. Based on the results of the architectural genealogy study, modern translation pathways for traditional architecture were proposed through spatial modeling, technical analysis, and iterative optimization. Modern translation experiments were conducted on selected typical villages and their traditional buildings, exploring the application model system of traditional architecture in modern contexts. This study not only deepens the scientific understanding of the genealogy zoning characteristics of traditional architecture in the Goulou Cluster of Yue Dialects in Guangxi but also provides a reference for the modern translation and optimization path of traditional architecture, providing important theoretical basis and application guidance for promoting the inheritance and innovation of rural culture, and realizing the protection and updating of rural architectural style.
... In the mid-1850s an observer wrote "The altitude and fresh sea breeze make Texel a healthy and fertile place [an expert has said] ... I do not believe ... there is a healthier region, people grow old here and except for the smallpox there are few infectious diseases" (Allan, 1856, p. 20, translation by Jan Kok). Indeed, infant and child mortality rates of the island contrasted favorably with the national averages, in particular around 1900 (Kok, 2023). The island also stood out with the stature of its recruits. ...
Historical demography is generally concerned with the changing economic, social and normative contexts
of human behaviour and health outcomes. To most historical demographers, the "genetic" component
of behaviour and health is either unknown or assumed to be constant. However, several studies point
at the shift over time in the relative importance of environment and genes: in periods and social groups
with strong normative or economic constraints on behaviour, the "genetic potential" is often not realized.
Therefore, to some extent, the waning of environmental constraints on heritability plays a role in changes
in demographic outcomes over time. Determining the relative importance of heritability versus shared
environment in historical populations for which only genealogies are available poses a challenge. Kin may
live in different periods, and in different cultural and social settings. This explorative paper analyses the
association between heights of conscripted relatives, as well as their life span. I estimate how the associations
are affected by respectively genetic relatedness, shared historical period and shared social and geographical
environment. Furthermore, I make a distinction between kin related via the mother versus kin related via
the father. All kinds of kin are involved in the analysis: (half, full and twin) brothers, fathers, grandfathers,
uncles and cousins. The data consist of about 3,000 men culled from Texel island genealogies, which also
include descendants of families who had left the island. Life span has a weak, but still discernible, genetic
element. The heritability of height is much stronger, especially at age 19/20. The correlations of mother's
kin with her son's heights are stronger than those of her husband's kin. The analysis does not yield a
consistent effect of a protective environment on kin correlations in either height or life span.
... The HSN data are limited to only one point of measurement. Nevertheless, a wide range of studies collected Dutch conscription data and linked it to civic guard registers (Beekink & Kok, 2017;Hornix et al., 2020;Kok, 2022;Oppers, 1963;Thompson et al., 2020). In the Netherlands, a civic guard duty was mandatory for all men aged 25 from 1828 to 1908. ...
... This may illustrate a possible intergenerational effect of CDR. Although there are studies that found that even living conditions of earlier generations affected health of later generations (Bygren et al., 2001;Kaati et al., 2007), Kok (2022) found no intergenerational effects on height. To test this, two OLS regressions were run with the intergenerational height difference and the height of the son as outcomes. ...
... A wide range of studies has shown that Dutch conscription height is not the same as terminal adult stature, especially in the nineteenth century (Kok, 2022;Oppers, 1963;Thompson et al., 2020). This poses no problem for a study into living standards, as differences in early life conditions are more pronounced in conscription heights (Beekink & Kok, 2017;Hornix et al., 2020). ...
The central question in this special issue is a relatively new one in anthropometric history: how did body height affect the life course? This raises the issue of whether such an effect merely captures the underlying early-life conditions that impact growth, or whether some independent effect of stature can be discerned. Further, the effects of height on later-life outcomes need not be linear. These effects may also differ by gender, by context (time and place), and among life course domains such as occupational success, family formation or health in later life. The ten research articles in this issue use a plethora of historical sources on individuals, such as prison and hospital records, conscript records, genealogies and health surveys. These articles employ a variety of methods to distinguish between early-life and later-life effects, between intra- and intergenerational processes and between biological and socio-economic factors. Importantly, all articles discuss the impact of the specific context on their results to understand these effects. The overall conclusion is that independent later-life outcomes of height are rather ambiguous, and seem to stem more from the perception of physical strength, health and intelligence associated with height than from height itself. This special issue also reflects on intergenerational effects of the later-life outcomes of height. As populations have grown taller, it is possible that height and later-life outcomes have formed a 'virtuous cycle', resulting in taller, healthier and wealthier populations. So far, however, our research offers little support for this hypothesis.
