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Figure E.1: Visualization of the 2D latent solutions for the Burgers, Allen-Cahn, and KdV equations. The observed data are sampled on an 8 × 8 grid, denoted by white points.
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Bi-level optimization (BO) has become a fundamental mathematical framework for addressing hierarchical machine learning problems. As deep learning models continue to grow in size, the demand for scalable bi-level optimization solutions has become increasingly critical. Traditional gradient-based bi-level optimization algorithms, due to their inhere...
