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Field views of Lixus showing: A) The Tchemmis hill and the trace of the Tchemmis section following the structural steps related to the exposure of the Oligocene sandstones. B) The Tchemmis Hill west view with the Loukkos River and the city of Larache in the background. C) The Temple district. D) The Amphitheater. E) The Quarter of the temples with partially ruined columns made of Quaternary sandstones. F) The complex for the production of salted fish.
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The characterization of building materials is a key tool to assess deterioration processes and improve potential restoration works of archaeological sites. The aim of this paper is to identify and characterize the most important building stones used in the construction of the Roman city of Lixus (Larache, Morocco) by means of petrographic and petro...
Contexts in source publication
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... 1966). The ruins of the city represent the pass of diverse civilizations, starting as Phoenician and followed by Punic, Mauritanian, Roman, and finally Islamic ( Ouacha et al., 2013). The city is endowed with several public monuments such as an amphitheatre, temple area and private baths richly decorated with frescoes and mosaics of good quality (Fig. 3). In addition, the city has a large industrial complex for the elaboration of salted brine and salted fish (Fig. 3F), being the salt produced in a work complex located in the vicinity of the city (Figs. 2; 3A-B). Most Lixus buildings are partially to completely ruined and numerous original rock elements are broken or disappeared (Figs. ...
Context 2
... Mauritanian, Roman, and finally Islamic ( Ouacha et al., 2013). The city is endowed with several public monuments such as an amphitheatre, temple area and private baths richly decorated with frescoes and mosaics of good quality (Fig. 3). In addition, the city has a large industrial complex for the elaboration of salted brine and salted fish (Fig. 3F), being the salt produced in a work complex located in the vicinity of the city (Figs. 2; 3A-B). Most Lixus buildings are partially to completely ruined and numerous original rock elements are broken or disappeared (Figs. 3B-F; 4A). Moreover, the remaining building rocks frequently present alteration patterns such as fissures, surface ...
Context 3
... located in the vicinity of the city (Figs. 2; 3A-B). Most Lixus buildings are partially to completely ruined and numerous original rock elements are broken or disappeared (Figs. 3B-F; 4A). Moreover, the remaining building rocks frequently present alteration patterns such as fissures, surface erosion, fragmentation and biological colonization (Fig. ...
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... 4A-C). The Quaternary sandstone, especially fine to medium-grained bioclastic sandstones, is mainly used in the construction of columns as well as in the construction of the walls of houses and temples (Fig. 4E). The Quaternary conglomerate, especially microconglomeratic facies, is dominantly used in the construction of the base of the columns (Fig. ...
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... stone quarries in the Tchemmis hill, probably roman in origin, is evidenced by the presence of extraction marks still preserved in the rock (Fig. 4B). According to the lithostratigraphic section, the largest blocks found in the base of the walls of most important buildings of the city were taken from the second morphological step of the hill (Fig. 3A), corresponding in the log to the stretch between 67 to 74m (Fig. ...
Context 6
... 1966). The ruins of the city represent the pass of diverse civilizations, starting as Phoenician and followed by Punic, Mauritanian, Roman, and finally Islamic ( Ouacha et al., 2013). The city is endowed with several public monuments such as an amphitheatre, temple area and private baths richly decorated with frescoes and mosaics of good quality (Fig. 3). In addition, the city has a large industrial complex for the elaboration of salted brine and salted fish (Fig. 3F), being the salt produced in a work complex located in the vicinity of the city (Figs. 2; 3A-B). Most Lixus buildings are partially to completely ruined and numerous original rock elements are broken or disappeared (Figs. ...
Context 7
... Mauritanian, Roman, and finally Islamic ( Ouacha et al., 2013). The city is endowed with several public monuments such as an amphitheatre, temple area and private baths richly decorated with frescoes and mosaics of good quality (Fig. 3). In addition, the city has a large industrial complex for the elaboration of salted brine and salted fish (Fig. 3F), being the salt produced in a work complex located in the vicinity of the city (Figs. 2; 3A-B). Most Lixus buildings are partially to completely ruined and numerous original rock elements are broken or disappeared (Figs. 3B-F; 4A). Moreover, the remaining building rocks frequently present alteration patterns such as fissures, surface ...
Context 8
... located in the vicinity of the city (Figs. 2; 3A-B). Most Lixus buildings are partially to completely ruined and numerous original rock elements are broken or disappeared (Figs. 3B-F; 4A). Moreover, the remaining building rocks frequently present alteration patterns such as fissures, surface erosion, fragmentation and biological colonization (Fig. ...
Context 9
... 4A-C). The Quaternary sandstone, especially fine to medium-grained bioclastic sandstones, is mainly used in the construction of columns as well as in the construction of the walls of houses and temples (Fig. 4E). The Quaternary conglomerate, especially microconglomeratic facies, is dominantly used in the construction of the base of the columns (Fig. ...
Context 10
... stone quarries in the Tchemmis hill, probably roman in origin, is evidenced by the presence of extraction marks still preserved in the rock (Fig. 4B). According to the lithostratigraphic section, the largest blocks found in the base of the walls of most important buildings of the city were taken from the second morphological step of the hill (Fig. 3A), corresponding in the log to the stretch between 67 to 74m (Fig. ...
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Citations
... Complementary to the use of these mineralogical, petrographic, and chemical techniques, other authors have worked on the comparative study with petrophysical tests, mainly focusing on hydric [18] and mechanical properties through non-destructive testing [19], and even through the correlation of deterioration patterns in the monument and in the quarries [20,21]. In our work, we offer a multi-analytical study with an important presence of SEM-EDX observations to complement the petrographic discussion. ...
As part of the restoration project of the 13th century Vera Cruz Church (Segovia, Spain), a preliminary study of the stones used in its construction—dolostones of the Montejo de la Vega Fm of Santonian age (Upper Cretaceous)—and the possible location of the quarry of the provenance of these stones was carried out. For this purpose, a comparative analysis was performed between the currently active quarry of La Vera Cruz n° 88 and the historical quarry of Zamarramala. The samples were characterized using a multidisciplinary approach, combining X-ray diffraction (XRD), polarized optical microscopy (POM), and scanning electron microscopy with microanalysis (SEM-EDX). The combined mineralogical, chemical, and textural characterization provided valuable information on historical provenance. The results show a significant correlation between the dolostone samples obtained from the church and both quarries. The integral characterization confirms the suitability of the dolostones identified in the currently active quarry, Vera Cruz n° 88, for the restoration of the Vera Cruz Church, ensuring the use of appropriate materials. This study contributes to the restoration efforts of the Vera Cruz Church by providing a deeper understanding of the historical origins of the building stones.
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This research is a contribution to the mineralogical and physical–mechanical characterisation of the ignimbrites from Arucas (Gran Canaria Island), used as building stones under the commercial names of "Piedra de Arucas Lomo Tomás de León" and "Piedra de Arucas Rosa Silva". This stone has been used for more than five hundred years and is part of the local architectural heritage, but has also been exported to other regions of the world. To perform this characterisation, a chemical analysis was carried out using X-ray fluorescence (XRF), mineralogical and petrographic properties were obtained using polarised optical microscopy (POM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Several physical properties were determined, namely: apparent density (AP), open porosity (OP), water absorption at atmospheric pressure (WA), water absorption by capillarity (WAC), ultrasound velocity (PWV) and colour. Mechanical properties were obtained through compressive strength (UCS), bending strength (BS), point load (PLT), indirect tensile (BTS) and energy at break (IR) tests. To evaluate the durability, the samples were subjected to salt crystallisation cycles (CS), SO2 action (AS) and salt spray (SS) and the abrasion resistance (AR) was determined. The results obtained show that, although both samples share the same lithology and belong to the same geological formation (Salic Formation, trachytic-phonolitic), they show very different properties. Porosity stands out as the property with the higher difference among the two studied varieties. Therefore, the application of these ignimbrites should be done accordingly, avoiding environmental conditions that promotes the wettability and/or the salt crystallisation.
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This paper is a contribution to the conservation of the built heritage in Northwestern Morocco, especially the roman acheosite of Lixus in Larache. The aim is to identify the alteration forms of building rocks and to determine the agents in charge. The first part of the fieldwork consisted of rocks characterization via a mapping procedure and a careful sampling. While the second part was inventorying the observed forms of alteration. In the laboratory, the samples were subject of a petrographic study and experiments to determine the building rock’s parameters such as; porosity, density and hardness. Furthermore, an accelerated ageing experiment due to salt crystallization, using a salt fog chamber, was relevant to run, because of the air salinity of the Mediterranean weather of North-Western Morocco. The results are that the characterization of the building rocks reveals the use of four main lithologies: Quartz Sandstone (49%), Calcarenites (26%), Littered Sandstones (14%) and Biocalcarenites (12%). These rocks are affected by different forms of alteration like erosion, alveolization, salt efflorescence, cracks and intense biodegradation, caused by lichens (Crustaceans and Folicaea) and Cormophytes. These forms of degradation are more common on biocaclcarenites and calcarenites. Thus, the agents responsible for these pathologies are external suchlike water and salt and internal like porosity, water absorption, hardness, density and mineralogical composition, in particular CaCO3. These results provide a scientific support to select the restoration materiel at Lixus.
... Stone material undergoes alteration processes when exposed to the elements (Martínez-Martínez et al. 2017;Damas Mollá et al. 2018;Sitzia et al. 2021), and if the damage is significant, the stone must be replaced to prevent further deterioration and the ruin of the building. In these cases, it is convenient to know the origin of the material: the geographical and geological location of the lithotypes, the exact formations, or even outcrops of origin (Fronteau et al. 2010;Bone 2016;Carter et al. 2017;Ajanaf et al. 2020). This information will make it possible to locate a stone that is similar to the original in characteristics and properties and, so, in behavior (Bugini and Folli 2008;De Kock et al. 2015;Zoghlami et al. 2017;Anania et al. 2012;Forestieria and Álvarez de Buergo 2019), and to find the most suitable material to replace ashlars or other construction elements in heritage restoration works. ...
This study offers an analysis of the petrographic variability and the stratigraphic origin of the rocks used as building stones in the vast majority of the historical monuments of Oviedo, including UNESCO World Heritage Sites. More than a hundred samples of Upper Cretaceous stone were obtained from monuments and outcrops. Based on petrographic characteristics, a macroscopic scale classification was established, and two lithotypes were identified, Piedramuelle and La Granda. Further varieties were differentiated at a microscopic scale: five in the first lithotype and two in the second one. Regarding stratigraphic origin, both rock types come from the Upper Cretaceous San Lázaro and Oviedo Formations. The building stones were mostly extracted from quarries located in the surroundings of the city and, in some cases, within the urban area. The lithotype used in monuments built up to the eighteenth century is Piedramuelle, while La Granda dominates in buildings erected during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
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“Pietraforte” is the historic name of a turbiditic sandstone extensively used in monumental buildings of Florence from the Roman period to the early XX century. Today all the historical quarries are disused, and they have been reclaimed as urban areas or parks (e.g., Boboli Garden). No technical data on Pietraforte are available, although they would be valuable to drive the conservation of these exceptional monumental buildings. In this work the results of an experimental research are shown; the experimental campaign was aimed at investigating the mechanical properties of Pietraforte through both destructive and non-destructive tests. The analysed samples were extracted from some of the ancient quarries used for the historical buildings in the Florentine area. All the samples were tested according to international standards, in order to collect statistically consistent results in terms of the ultrasonic velocity of the P-waves and uniaxial compressive strength. A predictive model to relate the ultrasonic velocity and the uniaxial compressive strength is proposed on the basis of the obtained results. The collected experimental data refer to “fresh” intact rock and provide useful knowledge that can be used to design and calibrate the interventions on monumental buildings made of Pietraforte.
