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The earthquake environmental effects (EEEs) around the epicentral area of the Pohang earthquake (Mw-5.4) that occurred on 15 November 2017 have been collected and classified using the Environmental Seismic Intensity Scale (ESI-07 scale) proposed by the International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA) focus group. The shallow-focus 15 November Po...
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... of the cracks were a few tens of meters long and 1-5 cm wide. Some of the typical ground cracks observed during the Pohang earthquake around the epicentral area are shown in Figure 5. observed ground crack along the embankment of rice field around Yongjeon-ri; (b-d) ground cracks observed near Hangdong University. ...
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The 1688 Sannio–Matese earthquake, with a macroseismically derived magnitude of Mw = 7 and an epicentral intensity of IMCS = XI, had a deep impact on Southern Italy, causing thousands of casualties, extensive damage and significant environmental effects (EEEs) in the epicentral area. Despite a comprehensive knowledge of its economic and social impa...
Earthquake Environmental Effects (EEE) are the effects produced by an earthquake on the natural environment, either directly linked to the earthquake source or triggered by the ground shaking. These include surface faulting, regional uplift and subsidence, tsunamis, liquefaction, ground resonance, landslides, and ground failure phenomena. The EEE c...
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... There are many studies on seismic hazard using different methodological approaches in Italy and worldwide. These include geological records, such as paleoearthquakes, paleotsunamis, and coseismic rupture models [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8], macroseismic investigations for analyzing the damage evolution during seismic sequences [9][10][11][12][13], and geophysical studies, including seismic and electrical tomography, as well as gravity and magnetic imaging techniques [14][15][16][17]. ...
With the continuous development of society, the rapid urbanization of cities, and the increasing construction of large-scale infrastructure projects, seismic hazard studies are becoming increasingly necessary [...]
... For example, the earthquake in Lefkas, Greece in 2015 revealed that reinforced concrete buildings were more affected by secondary effects than the earthquake itself, emphasizing that these factors should be considered during structural design and disaster preparedness (Lekkas et al. 2017). Additionally, the Pohang earthquake in South Korea in 2017, although it did not cause surface fracture, caused extensive secondary environmental impacts and damage to critical infrastructure (Naik et al. 2020). ...
On February 6, 2023, two major earthquakes occurred in southern Turkey with an interval of 9 hours. The two earthquakes that occurred are two major earthquakes that are individually important. If it had occurred in different regions over a longer period, it would have entered the literature as two separate earthquakes. These two major earthquakes, centered in Pazarcik (7.7 Mw) and Elbistan (7.6 Mw), affected a total of 11 cities in the south and east of the country, and approximately 14 million people living in these cities were directly damaged by the earthquake. According to the official data, the loss of life due to the earthquake is around 50000. After the earthquake that caused such great losses, the region became the focus of researchers. However, studies focus on structural damage, considering the earthquake's first effect. Although not directly caused by the first movement after the earthquake, secondary effects resulting from the earthquake or the physical characteristics of the region cause significant damage, although not as much as the primary effects. Secondary effects such as liquefaction, fire, landslide, change in water level, change in water quality, surface fractures, and tsunami should be examined and prevented from occurring in these situations as well as buildings affected by earthquakes. Within the scope of this study, the type and distribution of secondary effects in the cities affected by the Kahramanmaraş earthquakes were examined. Secondary effects were intense in the cities of Hatay, Kahramanmaraş, Adiyaman and Malatya. In addition to the distribution of secondary effects, its relationship with the rate of structural damage and the economic costs it causes were examined. Considering the results, the incidence of secondary effects also increases in cities with a high rate of structural damage. In addition, the effect of secondary effects on direct economic costs is around 30%. The economic cost of the Kahramanmaraş earthquakes due to secondary effects has been calculated as approximately 17 billion dollars. In addition to the primary effects of earthquakes, their secondary effects should also be considered. This will give sensitivity to the predictions made in terms of minimizing earthquake-related damage.
... As a result, empirical relationships linking earthquake magnitude and intensity assignment and attenuation have been extracted both in certain regions (e.g. in Greece and the Med: Papanikolaou and Melaki, 2017; in the Apennines, Italy: Ferrario et al., 2020) and lately worldwide incorporating 157 events (Ferrario et al., 2022). The ESI2007 is now tested beyond the mainstream earthquake types and tectonic settings and specifically in: intraplate settings (King et al., 2018;Naik et al., 2020a), moderate magnitude events (Naik et al., 2020b), earthquakes with very shallow focal depths (Nappi et al., 2021), intra-slab and subduction zone earthquakes (Chunga et al., 2018;Velázquez-Bucio et al., 2023, this volume). Therefore, these rather special case studies provide some key preliminary data on how the ESI20007 performs in these types of events, offering an in-depth view of the scale and overall help comprehend the wider perspective of the ESI2007 and its potential limitations. ...
... As a result, there have been significant differences between the ESI-07 and the traditional intensities for several events around the world (Guerrieri et al., 2009;Tatevossian et al., 2010;Ali et al., 2009;Papanikolaou et al., 2009;Lekkas, 2010;Papanikolaou, 2011;Nappi et al., 2017;Chunga et al., 2018;Grützner et al., 2019) verifying that the man-made environment overshadows the traditional intensities. This kind of uncertainty can be overcome by detailed mapping of the EEEs and applying the ESI-07 scale (Michetti et al., 2007;Ota et al., 2009;Huang et al., 2019;Naik et al., 2020b). It is noticed that integration of ESI-07 and the traditional intensity scale can provide a better picture of earthquake scenarios for damaging earthquakes, more specifically for earthquakes having intensity larger or equal to IX to X, when the man-made structures are completely damaged . ...
The macroseismic intensity of the February 6, 2018, Mw 6.4, Hualien earthquake, which caused extensive damage around the Hualien area of eastern Taiwan is reassessed using the Environmental Seismic Intensity (ESI-07) scale. We compiled data on earthquake environmental effects (EEEs) caused by the 2018 Hualien earthquake, which includes surface ruptures, ground cracks, liquefaction, and occasional landslides, and estimated the epicentral intensity (I0) as well as site-specific intensities. We found that the ESI-07 epicentral intensity of the Hualien quake in 2018 is IX. We note that the epicentral area of the 2018 Hualien earthquake was the mesoseismal area of the October 22, 1951, (Mw 6.6) Hualien earthquake, as reported in primary contemporary sources and historical earthquake catalogs. The 1951 Hualien earthquakes also caused prominent surface ruptures, liquefaction, and ground cracks. Consequently, we reassess the macroseismic intensities of this historical seismic event and compare it to the Hualien earthquake in 2018. The comparison suggests similar epicentral intensities for the two earthquakes (IX and X ESI-07). Moreover, we conducted a systematic comparison between intensity obtained using different scales which revealed the differences of two to three degrees between the ESI-07 and traditional intensity scales. This result reconfirms the significance of documentation and recording of earthquake environmental effects to make intensity assessments for modern seismic events consistent with the historical earthquake records. Moreover, a re-evaluation of historical earthquake intensity in eastern Taiwan could be performed in order to update the seismic hazard map. Application of the ESI-07 intensity scale of recent and historical earthquakes will be helpful in post-earthquake recovery efforts for a future earthquake. The prepared ShakeMaps from the ESI-07 values suggests completely different shapes to the previously generated ShakeMaps considering the peak ground acceleration or peak ground velocity. It suggests that the ShakeMaps prepared from the earthquake environmental effects can be complemented with the instrumental based intensity map to have a better seismic hazard prediction and future land use planning for the region.
... The northern margin of the Yangsan Fault passes through the western part of Pohang City. Fourteen months after the Gyeongju event, an M5.4 earthquake occurred in eastern Pohang, resulting in economic losses of 46 million dollars [52]. Liquefaction occurred together with building failures and water-level changes in the region [53], with 3-4 cm of surface deformation measured through the analysis of satellite images [54]. The activity of an unknown fault contributed to the Pohang earthquake, while several hydraulic injections were conducted for the enhanced geothermal system between 2015 and 2017 [55], at the site where apart 600 m from the epicenter. ...
Although there is skepticism about the likelihood of predictive success, research on the prediction of an earthquake through precursory changes in natural parameters, including groundwater, has continued for decades. One of the promising precursors is the changes in groundwater, i.e., the level and composition of groundwater, and the monitoring networks are currently operated to observe earthquake-related changes in several countries situated at the seismically active zone. In Korea, the seismic hazards had not been significantly considered for decades since the seismic activity was relatively low; however, the public demands on the management and prediction of earthquakes were raised by two moderate-size earthquakes which occurred in 2016 and 2017. Since then, a number of studies that were initiated in Korea, including this study to establish a pilot-scale groundwater-monitoring network, consisted of seven stations. The network is aimed at studying earthquake-related groundwater changes in the areas with relatively high potentials for earthquakes. Our study identified a potential precursory change in water levels at one particular station between 2018 and 2019. The observed data showed that most monitoring stations are sufficiently isolated from the diurnal natural/artificial activities and a potential precursory change of water level was observed at one station in 2018. However, to relate these abnormal changes to the earthquake, continuous monitoring and analysis are required as well as the aid of other precursors including seismicity and geodetic data.
The macroseismic intensity of the February 6, 2012, Negros Oriental earthquake (MW 6.7), which affected the islands of Negros and Cebu, central Philippines, has been reassessed in this study using the Environmental Seismic Intensity Scale (ESI-2007). This earthquake caused a ∼75-km-long surface rupture along a previously unmapped fault and resulted in extensive landslides, localized liquefaction, lateral spreading, a tsunami, and widespread damage to infrastructure near the epicentral area. Considering the widespread earthquake environmental effects (EEEs), ESI-2007 intensities were evaluated for 324 locations covering an area of approximately 1000 km² within the Negros and Cebu Islands. A systematic comparison was conducted between the ESI-2007 scale and the traditional intensity scales (PHIVOLCS earthquake intensity scale (PEIS) and Modified Mercalli Intensity scale (MM) along with the generation of an ESI-2007 shake map, which is solely based on site-specific ESI-2007 intensity values. According to the ESI-2007 scale, the epicentral intensity I0=X is assessed. This is two degrees higher than the intensity of the PEIS, and three degrees higher than the modified MM intensity provided by the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The intensity difference may also be due to the lack of suitable observations of building damage data in this sparsely populated region of the Philippines. Comparison of the ShakeMap that was constructed using the ESI-2007 intensities with the PHIVOLCS and USGS ShakeMap suggests that the instrumental or structural damage-based intensity maps underestimate the seismic intensity for the 2012 Negros Oriental earthquake. The ESI-2007 ShakeMap presented in this work is pertinent for the assessment of future seismic risk associated with other earthquake generators in the vicinity of the islands of Negros and Cebu. It can be integrated with the PEIS or MM intensity scale to improve disaster management and planning, post-earthquake recovery efforts, and damage estimation.
We mapped Plio-Pleistocene lake deposits in the Ixtlahuaca paleobasin in Central Mexico, located 51 km south of the Acambay Graben and 69 km west of Mexico City. Within the Acambay basin, Pleistocene to Holocene lake sediments record primary and secondary environmental effects of strong local earthquakes as a consequence of Quaternary activity of the major normal border faults. Likewise, the Ixtlahuaca paleobasin has been controlled mainly by the Quaternary evolution of the Perales and Ixtlahuaca faults, even if there is no record of local historical earthquakes, and therefore the area has not been considered as potentially seismic. However, the application of the ESI 2007 Scale to deformation structures as effects of seismic events on the geological-natural environment in the Tierras Blancas - San Bartolo Lanzados basins and San Pedro El Alto, within the Acambay graben, and its comparison with seismites identified in the Ixtlahuaca paleobasin, shows that past earthquakes similar to the Mw 6.5 to 7 surface faulting events generated by the main faults of the Acambay graben have also occurred in the Ixtlahuaca area.
