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This study evaluated the production of fatty acid ethyl esters from fish oil using ultrasonic energy and alkaline catalysts
dissolved in ethanol. The feasibility of fatty acid ethyl ester production was determined using an ultrasonic bath and probe,
and between 0.5 and 1% KOH (added to the fish oil). Furthermore, factors such as ultrasonic device (...
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The present investigation reports transesterification of non-edible oils, waste cooking oil (WCO) and waste fish oil (WFO) with methanol using activated carbon supported potassium hydroxide (KOH) as a solid base catalyst. Activated carbon was prepared from polyethylene terephthalate waste and loaded with KOH by wet impregnation method to prepare KO...
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... Linseed oil ethyl esters (E) were produced in a one-step transesterification process at elevated temperatures. Firstly, a solution of alkaline catalyst in ethyl alcohol (3 g of KOH in 400 mL of 96% ethyl alcohol) was prepared [23]. Then, the catalyst-alcohol solution was added to 200 g of linseed oil in a round flask, and the mixture was refluxed at 76 • C for 2 h in a water bath. ...
The aim of the study was to compare the encapsulation of linseed oil and its ethyl esters using two coating materials (maltodextrin with whey protein concentrate (WPC) vs. maltodextrin with gum arabic) and two drying methods (spray-drying vs. freeze-drying) to obtain powders with the highest oxidative stability. A comparison was made based on the properties of emulsions (morphology, particle size distribution, and stability) and powders (morphology, physicochemical properties, fatty acid composition, and oxidative stability). The powder’s oxidative stability was determined based on the Rancimat protocol. The most uniform distribution of oil droplets in prepared emulsions was stated for ethyl esters in a mixture of maltodextrin and gum arabic. Emulsions with WPC had a bimodal character, while those with gum arabic had a monomodal character. Gum arabic promoted emulsion stability, while in samples containing WPC, sedimentation and creaming processes were more visible. Powders obtained using spray-drying had a spherical shape, while those obtained by freeze-drying were similar to flakes. Although encapsulation efficiency was the highest for freeze-dried powders made of linseed ethyl esters with gum arabic, the highest oxidative stability was stated for powders made by spray-drying with WPC as wall material (independently of linseed sample form). These powders can be easily applied to various food matrices, increasing the share of valuable α-linolenic acid.
... Various heterogeneous catalysts were then developed, including metal oxides [6]. Alkaline earth metal oxide which has the potential as a heterogeneous catalyst for transesterification reactions is CaO [7]. Several studies that used CaO as a catalyst for biodiesel production are as follows. ...
Biodiesel or fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) is renewable and eco-friendly energy. This research is related to efforts to obtain excellent catalysts in biodiesel production. The development of biodiesel is one of the efforts to overcome the increasing need for renewable energy. In this study, we synthesized CaO/MnFe2O4 by wet impregnation method at various molar ratios of 6:1 and 7:1, then characterized it and evaluated its performance as a catalyst in biodiesel production through transesterification reaction of palm oil. The characterization results showed that CaO/MnFe2O4 was successfully synthesized as the dominant product. This was evidenced by the match between the CaO/MnFe2O4 diffractogram produced with the Inorganic Crystal Structure Database (ICSD) Card No. 75785 for CaO, and Crystallography Open Database (COD) No. 1010131 for MnFe2O4 using MAUD software. The product from the transesterification reaction was found to meet several criteria as biodiesel according to SNI 7182:2015. Application of CaO/ MnFe2O4 7:1 in.palm oil biodiesel production with a molar ratio of 1:15 (oil:methanol) gave a yield of 75.1 %.
... Microwave irradiation has been used to improve the efficiency of biodiesel production, reducing reaction time with energy savings of up to 44% [35]. Similarly, ultrasound-assisted transesterification of various vegetable oils has proven to be effective by increasing the contact surface between the alcohol/oil phases, improving mass transfer and reducing the amount of catalyst needed for biodiesel production [36,54], as well as ethyl esters of fish oil [37]. ...
... Transesterification reactions for the production of biodiesel or ethyl esters [35][36][37] Membrane technologies Degumming, neutralization, deodorization, fatty acid concentrate [38,39] Technology with supercritical fluid (CO 2 ) ...
A review of the efforts done in process engineering aspects, such as process optimization and process intensification of residual oils processing, are described and discussed. It should be emphasized that the important characteristics of marine oils be determined for a good process design practice, especially, the quality attributes of the residual oil as a raw material. Finally, some property prediction models that have been proposed are indicated. All these aspects: 1) novel process engineering tools, 2) quality characterization, and 3) property models, are important for sustainable products and processes implementation in a circular economy.
... The conversion is com-parable to the results reported by C. Stavarache et al. [7] where they used n-propanol as a solvent which is higher molecular weight alcohol compared to methanol used in this study. Other reported result was for the feedstock of soybean frying oil [7][8][9][10]. The present study compares favourably with the results reported in literature. ...
Among novel methods to carry out transesterification of the Jatropha oil, Ultrasound Assisted Transesterification is one of the best techniques in terms of reduction in process time and stages of the biodiesel process. On the conversion of Jatropha oil to biodiesel, the effects of process factors including the catalyst loading, the methanol to oil molar ratio, reaction temperature, and reaction duration were examined. Under the circumstances of 50°C, a methanol to oil molar ratio of 9:1, a reaction time of 30 min, and a catalyst quantity (catalyst/oil) of 1% wt%, the conversion was over 93 percent. This research presents a kinetic investigation of the transesterification of Jatropha oil using ultrasonic assisted synthesis and makes a case for its applicability for first order reaction. The derived rate equation is also shown.
... This homogeneous catalyst is quite effective. The production of biodiesel with KOH catalyst generally gives a conversion factor greater than 95% [4]. But behind its superiority, this homogeneous catalyst has several disadvantages, namely: (1) its potential to produce pollutants if discharged into the environment; (2) there is chance to cause undesirable side reactions (hydrolysis and saponification); and (3) it cannot be recovered and recycled. ...
Until now there are has not been any concrete utilization of used cooking oil (jelantah). This research seeks to convert this cooking oil waste into biodiesel. According the actual that cooking oil still contains free fatty acids can be converted into methyl esters through transesterification reaction. This effort is in line with the increasing requirement for renewable energy sources. But to achieve maximum reaction results of transesterification without using a catalyst, need supercritical conditions. Even more cooking oil waste is a low quality oil with high levels of free fatty acids and high rancidity. Therefore it is necessary to think about optimum process conditions and needed superior catalysts in the transesterification process. One catalyst that thought to be superior is CaO/CoFe2O4. Eggshell solid waste can be used as a natural source of CaO, through high temperature heating (calcination). The purpose of this study is produces biodiesel from waste cooking oil using CaO/CoFe2O4 from eggshells catalyst. This research objectives were achieved through the following main steps: (1) Synthesis of activation zeolite for rafination process; (2) Pre-treatment of cooking oil waste; (3) Trans-esterification reaction from cooking oil waste using CaO/CoFe2O4 eggshells waste; (4) Optimization of trans-esterification reaction; (5) characterization of methyl esters produced and see their potential as biodiesel. Based on the results of FTIR, yield analysis, GC-MS, the result product is methyl ester and its potency to be biodiesel. The catalyst application in the transesterification reaction made from used cooking oil is expected to provide a conversion is about 80%.
... Enzymatic processes have also been studied [33][34][35][36][37][38][39], including the biodiesel production achieved by ethanolysis of waste chicken fat in the presence of lipases [37]. Finally, some authors reported transesterification processes carried out in supercritical conditions [40][41][42][43], in ionic liquids [44], with ultrasounds [45][46][47][48] or microwaves [49][50][51] to improve reaction kinetics. Sander [52] studied the influence of animal fat type (previously cleaned, thus achieving a low acidity content) on biodiesel quality, obtained by transesterification with methanol and NaOH and subsequent purification from residual glycerides by liquid-liquid extraction. ...
Three different waste animal fats (bone, chicken, and tallow) have been studied to evaluate whether they could be used as bioliquids according to the European Regulation (EC) No.1069/2009. The analyses showed that they contained an unsuitable amount of free fatty acids (FFA) and impurities content (total sediment) if compared with the standards for power generation (set by UNI 6579:2009), with the exception of tallow fat (class C, UNI/TS 11163:2018). A series of physical-chemical processes already applied at industrial scale have been considered to manage the acid value and the impurities content. The FFA esterification was carried out with methanol, comparing two acid catalysts (sulfuric acid or Amberlyst – 15), followed by neutralization of the residual acidity with two different bases (ammonia solution or solid sodium carbonate monohydrate) when necessary. The final purification has been achieved by treatment with powdered activated carbon. In particular, the bone fat was studied as reference material, having the worst initial physical-chemical characteristics. The UNI/TS 11163:2018 standard would allow to classify the bioliquid from bone fat belonging to class B, while the one from chicken would require further degumming and purification processes to reduce the metals, sulfur, and phosphorus content.
... For the production of biodiesel, the discarded parts of the fish were used for the extraction of refined fish oil. For an optimal reaction conditions of lipase content, reaction temperature and time and the molar ratio of 20%, 40 o C, 18 hrs, and 4:1 respectively, the yield of methyl ester is found to be higher (83%) [31,32]. used menhaden fish oil to produce biodiesel and estimated the physiochemical properties of the produced biodiesel. ...
The demonstration of producing biodiesel from fish oil using microwave with considerable reduction in the amount of catalyst used during the reaction and time of reaction is presented in this study. The various parameters such as microwave power, concentration of catalyst, reaction time and molar ratio were experimentally investigated. The reaction parameters were optimized by response surface method. Molar ratio, catalyst concentration, reaction time were chosen as reaction parameters with four levels. The results from RSM model indicate that molar ratio is having the significant contribution in transesterification of fish oil to bio diesel. To confirm the results obtained confirmative experiments were done and proved to be worthy.
... This homogeneous catalyst is quite effective. The production of biodiesel with KOH catalyst generally gives a conversion factor greater than 95% [4]. But behind its superiority, this homogeneous catalyst has several disadvantages, namely: (1) its potential to produce pollutants if discharged into the environment; (2) there is chance to cause undesirable side reactions (hydrolysis and saponification); and (3) it cannot be recovered and recycled. ...
This research discusses the development of magnetic materials as an effort to produce renewable catalysts in overcoming the energy crisis. The purpose of this study was to synthesize and characterize MgO/CoFe2O4 nanoparticles using the coprecipitation method. The synergy between substances that are catalysts, namely MgO and CoFe2O4 to MgO/CoFe2O4 was expected to produce a superior catalyst for biodiesel production. The stages of this research were to synthesize MgO nanoparticles and CoFe2O4 nanoparticles by coprecipitation and continued with MgO impregnation on the CoFe2O4 surface to become MgO/CoFe2O4 with a mole ratio of 5: 1, then characterize them using X-Ray Diffraction and Scanning Electron Microscopy. The results of XRD analysis showed that MgO/CoFe2O4 nanoparticles were successfully synthesized according to the standard curves of MgO and CoFe2O4 (JCPDS Cards No. 89-7746 and 22-1086). SEM analysis results show that impregnated particles have spherical morphology and are larger in size than the two constituent components. The mean particle sizes of MgO, CoFe2O4, and MgO/CoFe2O4 were 29.588 nm, 42.282 nm and 65.953 nm, respectively. EDX analysis shows the appropriate atomic percentage and mass of each of the constituents of MgO/CoFe2O4 namely Magnesium, Iron, Cobalt, Oxygen.
... The radial motion of the bubbles generates micro-turbulence and brings about intense mixing of the immiscible reactant. Hence, the interfacial region between oil and alcohol increases intensively, which results in faster reaction kinetics, shorter reaction time and higher biodiesel yield (Stavarache et al., 2003;Colucci et al., 2005;Stavarache et al., 2006;Armenta et al., 2007;Deshmane et al., 2008;Kalva et al., 2009;Hanh et al., 2009). ...
Biodiesel has been commercially produced on a large scale, but its application is still limited primarily due to its production cost, which is relatively more expensive than that of fossil fuel. Recently, there has been an ongoing parallel development whereby biodiesel production is carried out on a community scale, including a mobile production unit of biodiesel with local input and demand. The produced biodiesel is often intended for use by the concerned local community, which greatly reduces logistics and transportation cost. Unlike typical biodiesel production plants, a mobile biodiesel unit consists of a biodiesel production facility placed inside a standard cargo container and mounted on a truck, so that it can be transported to a region near the location of the raw materials. In this paper, we review existing concepts and units for the development of community-scale and mobile production of biodiesel. These include the main reactor technology for biodiesel production, as well as the pre-treatment prior to conveyance to the reaction unit and post-treatment. The pre-treatment includes oil extraction from oilseeds by an oil-expeller unit, as well as quality control of the oil before it enters the reaction unit. The post-treatment includes refining and purification of the biodiesel to meet the product specification set by the biodiesel industry. This paper also discusses the production cost of biodiesel on a community scale, particularly when using a mobile biodiesel unit. The production cost varies from 0.98/l of diesel around the world. The production cost may be reduced by applying a biorefinery concept that may translate into an economically alluring and environmentally attractive business model.
... Several studies have been conducted to find efficient methods for producing biodiesel from different feedstocks. The transesterification process was used for the conversion of various sources of oils to methyl esters, such as waste oils [1][2][3], vegetable oils [4][5][6][7], animal fats [8][9][10], and algae or microalgae [11][12][13]. It was demonstrated that selecting a proper feedstock plays an important role in the quality of biodiesel. ...
... Vahid et al. [6] evaluated MgO as the active phase of the biodiesel production process and achieved the conversion of 95 percent of sunflower oil to biodiesel. Armenta et al. [8] found that sodium ethoxide was more effective than KOH for transesterification of fish oil. Cheng et al. [14] compared four solid acid catalysts to convert lipids of microalgae into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), in which sulfonated graphene oxide had a maximum conversion efficiency among them. ...
This paper aims to consider the potential of Eruca sativa (ES) crops, which is a plant with a short production cycle and drought tolerance, for biodiesel feedstock source and to compare exhaust emissions and engine performance of using its biodiesel blends with pure diesel. Thus, ES methyl ester was produced through a transesterification reaction by using KOH as a catalyst. The fatty acid composition of ES biodiesel was determined by FTIR and GC–MS analysis and its properties were compared with ASTM biodiesel standard and regular diesel. The GC–MS analysis showed that oleic and palmitic acids were the main compounds in ES methyl ester. Then, biodiesel blends were injected into a single-cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine at various speeds. Experimental tests revealed that using ES methyl ester led to reductions in HC and CO emissions substantially and NOx emissions moderately, whereas there was a minor rise in CO2 emissions. Moreover, a slight decrease in engine power and an increase in specific fuel consumption (5.3%) occurred, which are acceptable due to the reduction of exhaust emissions. Based on the results, ES biodiesel has the capability to apply in CI engines and to diminish emissions.
