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Examples of archaeological ceramic items in which we detected T. cacao ancient DNA presence. Item names and their associated culture: A: P236: sherd from Puerto Hormiga; B: P247: sherd from San Jacinto; C: P175: ceramic item of the Jaen Archaeological site directly collected, Marañon; D: P325: pot, Valdivia phase III; E: P345: pot, Valdivia phase II; F: P348: pot, Machalilla; G: P350: Machalilla; H: P57: effigy vessel of a pregnant woman, Chorrera; I: P137: bottle, Chorrera; J: P306: effigy vessel of an owl, Jama Coaque; K: P307: effigy vessel of mythic being, Jama Coaque; L: P213: vase, Calima Ilama; M: P214: vase, Calima Ilama.
Source publication
Humans have a long history of transporting and trading plants, contributing to the evolution of domesticated plants. Theobroma cacao originated in the Neotropics from South America. However, little is known about its domestication and use in these regions. In this study, ceramic residues from a large sample of pre-Columbian cultures from South and...
Similar publications
Cocoa beans (Theobroma cacao L.) can be used for craft chocolate production, which arouses consumer interest due to their perceived better quality. This study aimed to evaluate the chemical profile of 80% artisanal chocolate samples produced with cocoa beans subjected to different maturation conditions. In the first maturation process, beans were m...
Citations
... Ecuadorian cacao varieties with the greatest economic importance belong to two genetic groups: Forastero and Trinitario. The Forastero group retains the organoleptic quality typical of fine-aroma cacaos (Lanaud et al., 2024), while the Trinitario group, which comprises hybrids between Criollo and Forastero (Loor et al., 2009), is of major importance in terms of productivity (Ali et al., 2014;García-Cruzatty et al., 2020). Currently, cacao commercialization is severely hindered by the natural tendency of cacao plants to bioaccumulate toxic metals like cadmium (Cd) (Oliveira et al., 2022); once taken up by cacao plants, Cd ultimately enters the human food chain (Vanderschueren et al., 2021). ...
... The crosses between universal cacao genotypes IMC-67 × EET-103 (denoted G1 hereafter) and ICS-95 × CCN-51 (denoted G2 hereafter) were selected in view of the economic importance worldwide of the parent genotypes, especially the CCN-51 genotype (Jaimez et al., 2022). The IMC-67 genotype is a clone from the Iquitos Marañon Caqueta Collection in Peru (Lanaud et al., 2024), while the EET-103 genotype is taken from the collection of the Pichilingue Tropical Experimental Station in Ecuador (Boza et al., 2014). Both genotypes belong to the Forastero genetic group (Cornejo et al., 2018). ...
... Both genotypes belong to the Trinitario genetic group (Motamayor et al., 2013;Cornejo et al., 2018). Crossing Forastero genotypes to obtain a Forastero hybrid (G1) could preserve the organoleptic characteristics of finearoma cacao (Lanaud et al., 2024), and the cross that produced the Trinitario hybrid (G2) is expected to ensure high productivity levels (Cornejo et al., 2018). ...
Premise
Currently, there is a lack of controlled cultivation methods for cacao (Theobroma cacao), a plant species with high commercial value. One major concern is the tendency of cacao plants to accumulate high concentrations of cadmium (Cd), a heavy metal with high toxicity to living organisms.
Methods and Results
We describe a new two‐step method for the propagation of hybrid cacao plants, consisting of (1) in vitro germination for two weeks, followed by (2) transfer to a vertical hydroponic system for growth under controlled conditions. As a test case, two new cacao hybrids were cultivated in the presence of Cd and showed different levels of tolerance.
Conclusions
Our simple approach offers a new research direction for the controlled cultivation of cacao plants and can potentially be applied to other plants of agronomic interest. Moreover, this method allows the identification of plants that are resistant to various toxic substances, which could then be used in phytoremediation.
... The domestication of cacao is believed to have occurred over 5000 years ago, either in Central America or the Amazon basin, particularly in southeastern Ecuador [1]. Historically, cacao was highly valued by ancient civilizations such as the Mayans, Aztecs, and the Andean cultures of Valdivia and Machalilla in Ecuador, as well as Puerto Hormiga and San Agustín in Colombia, where it was used both as currency and a trade item [2]. Today, Ecuador remains one of the world's leading cocoa exporters, contributing approximately 6% of global cocoa production [3,4]. ...
... ∆ , (2) where ΔE is the energy difference (in eV) between the upper and lower cadmium energy levels in the radiative transition used for electron density estimation. For this work, 1.7 × 10 17 cm 7.6 × 10 16 cm , and thus, McWhirter's criterion is satisfactorily met. ...
Highlights
What are the main findings? The LIBS technique was successfully applied for the first time to quantify cadmium in commercial cocoa powder across concentrations ranging from 70 ppm to 5000 ppm.
A mechanical mixing and pelletization protocol for sample preparation, combined with a background correction algorithm, significantly improved the accuracy and robustness of LIBS for cadmium detection in complex cocoa matrices.
What are the implications of the main findings? LIBS demonstrates its potential as a rapid, field-deployable method for food safety monitoring and industrial contamination assessments.
The methodology validates its applicability in high-contamination scenarios and expands the use of LIBS to other plant-based matrices and environmental monitoring.
Abstract
Cocoa is a major commodity in the global food industry. Heavy metal contamination, particularly cadmium (Cd), raises significant concerns. This work demonstrates the use of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) for fast Cd quantification in commercial cocoa powder across a wide range of concentrations (70–5000 ppm). Cocoa powder presents unique challenges due to its physical properties, such as the tendency to soften and liquefy at elevated temperatures, which complicates sample preparation. To address these issues, a mechanical mixing and pelletization protocol was implemented to ensure uniformity. Pellets were doped with known cadmium concentrations for calibration. Cadmium atomic lines at 340.36 and 361.05 nm were used to construct quantification curves. A special algorithm for background subtraction was implemented, and the LIBS plasma was characterized to ensure local thermodynamic equilibrium conditions. Out of eighteen samples, five double-blinded unknowns were evaluated. The concentrations agreed well within normalized standard deviations of 9.73% and 5.88% for the two cadmium lines. The limits of detection for the lines were 0.4 and 0.08 μg/g, respectively. LIBS is confirmed as a rapid and versatile analytical tool for Cd detection and quantification in complex food matrices, with potential applications in field-based and industrial monitoring systems.
... Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.), a perennial plant native to the tropical rainforests of the Amazon basin in South America (Lanaud et al. 2024), holds significant agricultural importance (Latif 2013;Wickramasuriya & Dunwell 2018). After its domestication, the cultivation of cocoa expanded globally to various tropical regions, including West Africa, Southeast Asia, and Central America. ...
This study provides a detailed investigation of the phospholipase C (PLC) and phospholipase D (PLD) gene families in cocoa (Theobroma cacao), focusing on their identification, characterization, and expression patterns. A total of 10 PLC and 12 PLD genes was identified and systematically annotated based on their sequence homology, conserved domains, and functional classification, adhering to established nomenclature. Analysis of physicochemical properties revealed diversity in molecular weights, isoelectric points, and stability parameters, reflecting their structural and functional variability. Phylogenetic analysis classified the genes into distinct subfamilies and highlighted their evolutionary relationships with homologs in Arabidopsis thaliana and rice (Oryza sativa). Gene structure analysis demonstrated significant variation in exon-intron organization, indicating functional specialization and regulatory complexity within these gene families. Expression profiling during cocoa embryo development showed that certain genes, such as TcNPC2, TcPI-PLC5, and TcPLDα1, were highly expressed, while others exhibited stage-specific activity. In response to Phytophthora megakarya infection, several PLC and PLD genes displayed significant changes in expression across different time points and genotypes, including the upregulation of TcPI-PLC2, TcPLDα5, and TcPLDζ2, suggesting their roles in cocoa's stress responses and defense mechanisms. These findings offer new insights into the biological roles of PLC and PLD gene families in cocoa, particularly in growth, development, and stress adaptation, providing a solid foundation for further functional research and potential applications in cocoa improvement programs.
... Since the Mayo-Chinchipe civilisation in Ecuador 5300 years ago, people have consumed cocoa, made from roasted cacao beans, in various forms. Mesoamerica brought chocolate to Europe in the 16th century [1]. ...
This research presents a case study of applying a thermosyphon for energy conservation in a chocolate temper process. The use of the thermosyphon, made of 304 stainless steel, aimed to achieve a uniform temperature distribution, control temperature and reduce electric consumption. The results show that processing time and electric consumption could be reduced by 10%. The quality of crystallisation and texture of the chocolate tempering exceeded manufacturing standards.
... The hybrid nature of Tumaco landraces is explained because they likely emerged during the early stages of agriculture. This period saw frequent interactions between the human populations of Amazonia and the Pacific coast, which contributed to the domestication of T. cacao [66]. Lanaud et al. [66] discovered that cacao populations located far from each other began to hybridize as early as the Middle Holocene period, driven by human activity. ...
... This period saw frequent interactions between the human populations of Amazonia and the Pacific coast, which contributed to the domestication of T. cacao [66]. Lanaud et al. [66] discovered that cacao populations located far from each other began to hybridize as early as the Middle Holocene period, driven by human activity. This hybridization favored the adaptation of T. cacao to new environments. ...
The cacao plant, Theobroma cacao, is economically significant, as its beans are essential for chocolate production. Cacao from Tumaco on Colombia’s Pacific coast is renowned for its distinct flavor and aroma, accessing specialty markets. However, production challenges include low yields, inconsistent post-harvest practices, and limited knowledge of local genotypes. To tackle these issues, a research project genetically characterized 25 Tumaco landraces, establishing their phylogenetic relationships using reduced representation libraries (RRL). The analysis yielded 359,950 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for Tumaco and identified 38,812 SNPs in common with Colombian National Germplasm Bank genotypes and reference groups. Genetic structure analysis divided Tumaco samples into nine populations, revealing admixtures primarily from the Nacional, Iquitos, Amelonado, and Criollo groups. Some Tumaco samples showed predominant ancestry from the Iquitos group, while others leaned towards the Nacional type, with limited Criollo and Contamana ancestry. No Tumaco landrace exhibited complete ancestry from a single group, suggesting a hybrid origin. These insights into Tumaco’s genetic diversity and structure are essential for improving landraces in Colombia’s Pacific region, contributing to the genetic enhancement of cacao.
... Cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao L.) originated in the Neotropics of South America, in the Amazonian region. Mexican cocoa tree has developed across cultural groups, in different geographical environments where it has thrived and evolved with intense gene flows among populations (Lanaud et al., 2024). ...
RESUMEN Objetivo: Analizar los aportes científicos realizados en México sobre el cultivo de cacao durante el periodo 1999-2022 y cuantificar la aportación por género. Diseño/metodología/aproximación: Los artículos científicos fueron recopilados de las principales editoriales (Elsevier, MDPI, Wiley y Springer), base de datos de artículos de revistas de acceso abierto (Conricyt, Scielo, Redalyc, Latindex, Claryvate Analytics, Periodica y DOAJ), y el motor de búsqueda web de libre acceso Google Scholar. El software Gephi se utilizó para construir redes de las instituciones de adscripción de los investigadores y redes de coautoría. Resultados: La producción científica mostró un crecimiento exponencial de textos científicos a nivel nacional donde el cacao fue tema de investigación. En los últimos 22 años, la productividad se concentró en tres tópicos principales: biotecnología (18.51%), economía (15.26%) y enfermedades, (13.31%). La investigación estuvo focalizada en el sureste mexicano, y estuvo liderada por el Colegio de Postgraduados, el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales Agrícolas y Pecuarias y la Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco. El género masculino presento un porcentaje mayor de artículos publicado como primer autor y de correspondencia. Limitaciones del estudio/implicaciones: Los documentos analizados son exclusivamente artículos científicos. Hallazgos/conclusiones: Existe un vacío de investigación en técnicas de propagación de la especie, etnobotánica, riego, fisiología vegetal y la influencia de las culturas y grupos indígenas en la transferencia de conocimiento. Palabras clave: Theobroma cacao, análisis bibliométrico, redes de coautoría, genero.
... No entanto, a introdução da doença vassoura-de-bruxa em 1989 impactou severamente a produção, levando o Brasil a deixar de ser o segundo maior exportador para se tornar um importador de cacau (Lanaud et al., 2024;Asante Appiah, 2024). Os fatores contribuintes incluíram preços internacionais baixos, maior concorrência da produção de cacau africana e menor disponibilidade de crédito para agricultores locais . ...
... Os fatores contribuintes incluíram preços internacionais baixos, maior concorrência da produção de cacau africana e menor disponibilidade de crédito para agricultores locais . Esforços recentes para revitalizar o cultivo de cacau por meio de práticas sustentáveis e sistemas agroflorestais têm se mostrado promissores, particularmente na Bahia, onde as iniciativas visam melhorar a resiliência das culturas e a renda dos agricultores (Lanaud et al., 2024;Gonzaga Teles et al., 2023). No entanto, os desafios contínuos das mudanças climáticas e da dinâmica de mercado continuam a ameaçar a sustentabilidade da produção de cacau na região (Agele & Ibiremo, 2024). ...
O cacaueiro (Theobroma cacao L.) é uma planta perene de grande relevância econômica, especialmente para a indústria do chocolate. No entanto, sua produção enfrenta desafios significativos, como doenças e baixa produtividade. No Brasil, a cultura cacaueira, principalmente na Bahia, passou por um período de expansão seguido de declínio, em grande parte devido à doença vassoura-de-bruxa introduzida em 1989. O presente estudo tem como objetivo explorar a variabilidade genética dos genótipos de cacau e suas aplicações em programas de melhoramento, além de analisar a eficácia dos Sistemas Agroflorestais (SAFs), com destaque para o modelo Cabruca, na promoção da sustentabilidade agrícola e conservação da biodiversidade. A pesquisa confirma que a variabilidade genética dos genótipos de cacau oferece um grande potencial para programas de melhoramento que visam aumentar a produtividade e a resistência a doenças. Além disso, os SAFs, particularmente o modelo Cabruca, são fundamentais para a revitalização da cultura cacaueira na Bahia, promovendo benefícios econômicos, sociais e ambientais. Esses sistemas sustentáveis não apenas melhoram a biodiversidade e a fertilidade do solo, mas também oferecem uma estratégia eficaz para enfrentar os desafios das mudanças climáticas e da posse de terra, contribuindo para a sustentabilidade da produção de cacau na região.
... Historically, the added value given to this product and its agroindustrialization began in the 16 th century, when the Spanish conquest led to its introduction in Europe and its taste spreading throughout the country (Rovirosa Pérez & Pérez Akaki, 2020). Theobroma cacao originated in the Neotropics from South America (Lanaud et al., 2024), in Mesoamerica it was used as a bargaining chip. With the Spaniards' conquest of Mexico, cocoa was the first product that linked Mexico with Spain. ...
Las bacterias lácticas (BAL) son de amplio uso en fermentaciones de la industria alimenticia y en ensilajes para alimentación animal. Sin embargo, la supervivencia de los microorganismos en los alimentos y en ensilajes se ve afectada por factores ambientales como la temperatura. Por consiguiente, la exploración de tecnologías de encapsulación permitiría preservar la integridad de los microorganismos encapsulados al protegerlos de las condiciones adversas del entorno. En el presente trabajo se examinó el efecto de tres temperaturas de almacenamiento: ambiente (25 °C), refrigeración (4 °C) y congelación (-18 °C), en presencia de tres sustratos: glucosa, suero de leche o agua destilada en la supervivencia de Lactobacillus acidophilus encapsulado en alginato a través del conteo de las UFC. Los resultados mostraron que L. acidophilus encapsulado y almacenado a 4 °C presentó valores de UFC entre 0,61 y 0,99 durante 80 días, siendo estos los más altos, mientras que la temperatura ambiente presentó los menores números de UFC, con valores entre 0,312 y 0,93, siendo estos los más bajos entre las tres temperaturas analizadas. L. acidophilus encapsulado en presencia de suero de leche y glucosa mostró mayor número de UFC, con valores entre 0,53 y 1, a lo largo del tiempo de almacenamiento, en comparación con aquellos en presencia de agua destilada, cuyos valores estuvieron entre 0,3 y 0,99. La glucosa y el suero son los medios adecuados para el cultivo de L. acidophilus encapsulado a temperaturas ambiente, de refrigeración y de congelación durante 90 días de almacenamiento. Independiente del medio de cultivo, la temperatura de congelación es la adecuada para el almacenamiento de L. acidophilus durante largos períodos.
The biodiversity of the Amazon rainforest includes little-known cocoa species, which are essential resources for local communities. This study evaluated the bioactive compounds and antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of seeds and mucilage of four non-traditional cocoa species (Theobroma subincanum, T. speciosum, T. bicolor and Herrania nitida). Physico-chemical properties, minerals, vitamin C, organic acids, phenolics, and carotenoids were analysed by spectrophotometric and chromatographic techniques. The antioxidant activity was measured by ABTS and DPPH, along with the antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Streptococcus mutans, as well as Candida albicans and Candida tropicalis. T. subincanum seeds scored high in titratable acidity, magnesium, sodium, syringic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, rutin, and quercetin. In contrast, the mucilage scored high in calcium, m-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, kaempferol, quercetin glycoside, and antimicrobial activity against Streptococcus mutans. T. speciosum mucilage excelled in malic acid, tartaric acid, naringenin, and antioxidant capacity. T. bicolor seeds excelled in lutein and antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans, and mucilage in iron, potassium, vitamin C, citric acid, gallic acid and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, zeaxanthin, β-carotene, and antioxidant capacity by ABTS. The mucilage of H. nitida has a high soluble solids content. These results highlight the potential of these species as sustainable sources of functional compounds and nutraceuticals.
Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is a crop that holds significant economic and social importance in Ecuador. Cocoa clones such as CCN-51, known for their resistance to diseases and high yield, have been widely established in the country. However, in January 2021, several CCN-51 plants showed dieback and fruit rot. Thus, this study focused on morphologically, molecularly, and pathogenically identifying the causal agent of these symptoms in cacao. Two fungal isolates (LT1A and LT2A) were obtained from symptomatic CCN-51 cacao pods. Both strains were characterized through morphological analysis (assimilative and asexual reproductive structures), molecular identification (using ITS, EF1α, and BTU markers), and pathogenicity testing (inoculation of seedlings and pods). The average temperature for optimal growth and pycnidia production for both strains was 28 ºC. The mean size of conidia was 25.2 x 13.7 μm. Molecular analysis identified the isolates as Lasiodiplodia laeliocattleyae. Pathogenicity tests confirmed that L. laeliocattleyae causes dieback in seedlings and pod rot on cacao. In seedlings and pods, the incidence of disease was 100 %, with the strain LT2A having a higher severity in pods (353.85 ± 35.15 mm) compared to LT1A (135.15 ± 61.09 mm) at 7 days after inoculation (Student T-test, P ≤ 0.05). To our knowledge, this is the first report of L. laeliocattleyae causing dieback in seedlings and pod rot on cocoa worldwide. These findings provide crucial information on the Lasiodiplodia-cacao pathosystem and highlight the need for further research on control measures to mitigate the spread and impact of L. laeliocattleyae in Ecuador.
